The role of NGO in informal seed production and dissemination: The case of eastern Ethiopia

Seed is the basic input to crop production. Farmer-based seed production as an alternative agricultural technology transfer is increasingly given especial attention in developing countries where food insecurity is critical. This paper aims to assess the seed production and dissemination strategy among smallholder farmers in eastern Ethiopia that has been introduced by Hararghe Catholic Secretariat (a Non-GovernmentalOrganization). A survey of 160 households in four administrative districts and focus group discussions were used to collect data. While narratives helped understand the process, logistic regressionwas used to identify determinants of land allocation to seed production. Results indicate the crucial role of informal networks and social capital as facilitators of access to production inputs, information and knowledge. The informal seed supply system initiated by the NGO has a huge potential to benefit smallholder farmers by improving their access to higher-yielding varieties of various crops, thereby contributing to an increase in their wellbeing. However, the traditional practice of seed exchange, influenced by social relations, will remain uneconomical to seed producers. Thus, the paper suggests that this potential can be further exploited if some preconditions such as establishment of seed banks, investment in human capital, removal of the underlying constraints and creation of reliable seed markets are given emphasis.

Influence of education levels on dissemination of soil fertility management information in the central highlands of Kenya

Inadequate links between researchers and farmers has resulted in low uptake of research advances recommended to improve food security in the central highlands of Kenya. Access to timely and accurate information by extension agents and farmers is paramount in dissemination of soil fertility management practices. Hence, the study sought to investigate the effect of education levels on communication channels used to disseminate soil fertility technologies in the Central highlands of Kenya. Questionnaires were used to elicit information from 105 extension agents and 240 farmers. About 50.5% of the extension officers were certificate holders while 29.5% were diploma holders from agricultural institutes. Majority of the farmers had attained primary education (59.6%) while 25.8% and 9.2% had attained secondary and post secondary education, respectively. Research institutions were the most accessible sources of information on soil fertility management practices by extension agents while internet and scientific conferences were the least scored as accessible sources of soil fertility management information by extension agents. Education levels significantly influenced preference of individual approach methods by farmers. There was a significant positive relationship between education and accessibility of internet as a source of information on green manure. The implication of the study was that education levels influenced the mode of communication used in the transfer of soil fertility research outputs to the end users. Consequently, it is extremely important to consider education levels in selection of dissemination pathways used in agriculture.

Bacterial ecology of ancient Saharan salt-enrichment ponds at Teguidda-n-Tessoumt

Little is known about the bacterial ecology of evaporative salt-mining sites (salterns) of which Teguidda-n-Tessoumt at the fringe of the West-African Saharan desert in Niger is a spectacular example with its many-centuries-old and very colorful evaporation ponds. During the different enrichment steps of the salt produced as a widely traded feed supplement for cattle, animal manure is added to the crude brine, which is then desiccated and repeatedly crystallized. This study describes the dominant Bacteria and Archaea communites in the brine from the evaporation ponds and the soil from the mine, which were determined by PCR-DGGE of 16S rDNA. Correspondence analysis of the DGGE-community fingerprints revealed a change in community structure of the brine samples during the sequential evaporation steps which was, however, unaffected by the brine's pH and electric conductivity (EC). The Archaea community was dominated by a phylogenetically diverse group of methanogens, while the Bacteria community was dominated by gamma proteobacteria. Microorganisms contained in the purified salt product have the potential to be broadly disseminated and are fed to livestock across the region. In this manner, the salt mines represent an intriguing example of long-term human activity that has contributed to the continual selection, cultivation, and dissemination of cosmopolitan microorganisms.

Vergleichende Untersuchungen Methicillin-resistenter Staphylococcus aureus des Klinikums Kassel der Jahre 1999 bis 2004

Die vorliegende Arbeit liefert erstmals einen umfassenden Überblick über die molekulare Epidemiologie von Methicillin resistenten Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) eines nordhessischen Krankenhauses inklusive seines Umfeldes und deren Entwicklung in einem Zeitraum von fünf Jahren. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist, dass die MRSA-Stämme hierfür nicht nur anhand ihrer SCCmec-Region (staphylococcal cassette chromosome) typisiert wurden, sondern eine weitergehende Charakterisierung auf Grund der Bestimmung des Vorkommens von Antibiotikaresistenz- und Toxingenen, sowie Plasmiden erfolgte. Dabei wurde ein neuer SCCmec-Typ entdeckt und charakterisiert und weitere noch unbekannte SCCmec-Elemente beschrieben. Bei der Charakterisierung der MRSA-Kollektive konnten bzgl. aller untersuchten Eigenschaften im Laufe der Zeit signifikante Veränderungen beobachtet werden. Am deutlichsten waren diese Unterschiede zwischen dem ältesten Kollektiv aus 1999 und allen nachfolgenden Kollektiven. Die Kollektive aus 2001, 2002, 2003 und 2004 zeigten untereinander größere Ähnlichkeiten, aber dennoch gleichzeitig eine tendenziell divergente Entwicklung einzelner Eigenschaften. Besonders auffallend war das dominante Auftreten von SCCmecIV mit 63-87% der Isolate eines Kollektivs ab 2001, gegenüber 16% in 1999. Weiterhin erfolgte eine markante Veränderung im Vorkommen einzelner Antibiotikaresistenzgene von 1999 bis 2004. So waren aacA-aphD und ermA bei MRSA aus 1999 mit 84% bzw. 90% deutlich häufiger als in allen Kollektiven der folgenden Jahre (aacA-aphD: max. 32%, ermA: max. 40%). Wohingegen ermC ein stets zunehmendes Vorkommen von 3% auf 67% über den Untersuchungszeitraum zeigte. Unkontinuierliches aber statistisch relevant vermehrtes Auftreten von tetM konnte bei Isolaten aus 1999 (40%) und 2004 (74%) nachgewiesen werden. Auch bei Toxingenen zeigten sich deutliche Unterschiede in der zeitlichen Verteilung. Ab 2001 zeigten alle Isolate wesentlich höhere Anteile an sec, seg und sei verglichen mit den MRSA aus 1999. So konnte sec im Kollektiv aus 1999 gar nicht nachgewiesen werden, in denen der Folgejahre mit 54-77%. Die Werte für seg und sei stiegen von 48% bzw. 41% in 1999 kontinuierlich auf über 90% in 2004. Die Häufigkeit von MRSA sowohl mit mehreren Resistenzgenen als auch die mit mehreren Toxingenen nahm im Laufe der Zeit zu und korrelierte mit dem Vorkommen von Plasmiden. Bezüglich seiner Korrelation mit den vorkommenden Plasmiden zeigte SCCmecIV im Erhebungszeitraum besonders deutlich eine Veränderung. So nahm über den Zeitraum der Beobachtung die Anzahl der Stämme die zusätzlich zu einem großen Plasmid ein weiteres kleines Plasmid besaßen signifikant zu. Auch beim Vergleich der SCCmec-Typen der MRSA-Isolate konnten Unterschiede bzgl. aller weiteren untersuchten Eigenschaften dargestellt werden. So zeigten z.B. alle SCCmecIIIA das sea-Gen, während dies bei allen anderen in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersuchten SCCmec-Typen nur vereinzelt vorkam. SCCmecII-Stämme wiesen sowohl die meisten Antibiotikaresistenz- als auch Toxingene auf. Es wurde ferner gezeigt, dass Stämme mit vielen Resistenzgenen auch eine hohe Anzahl Toxingene besaßen und dies im Zusammenhang mit einem erhöhten Plasmidgehalt stehen könnte. Aus den MRSA-Kollektiven isolierte Plasmide konnten aufgrund von Restriktionsanalysen als verwandt zu β-Laktamase-Plasmiden des Grundtyps pI524 und pI258 beschrieben werden. Der in vorliegender Arbeit gezeigte Zusammenhang zwischen der Anzahl von direct repeat units (dru) in der Hypervariablen Region (HVR) und dem SCCmec-Typ half den Unterschied zwischen SCCmecIV und SCCmecIVA, sowie die Sonderstellung des in vorliegender Arbeit erstmalig beschriebenen SCCmecIA/II darzustellen. Nicht alle Isolate konnten einem bekannten SCCmec-Typ zugeordnet werden, es handelt sich bei diesen Ausnahmen um weitere noch unbekannte und hier erstmalig beschriebene SCCmec-Typen. Aufgrund der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte ein neuer SCCmec-Typ definiert werden, namentlich der Typ SCCmecIA/II, der seit 1999 in der Region gehäuft vorkommt Die vorliegenden Untersuchungen zeigten somit, dass die Epidemiologie von MRSA der Region Nordhessen trotz bestehender Gemeinsamkeiten zur MRSA-Situation in ganz Deutschland auch Besonderheiten aufweist. Diese nun zu kennen kann einen Beitrag zur gezielten Verbesserung bisheriger Maßnahmen zur Ausbreitungskontrolle von MRSA in der nordhessischen Region leisten.

Biohöfe als Ausgangspunkte informeller Lernprozesse

Die Arbeit befasst sich mit der Frage nach dem Einfluss von Biohöfen auf die Menschen, die in ihrem Umfeld leben. Sie bietet Einblicke in die Zusammenhänge, in denen Nachbarn, Kollegen, Freunde oder Kunden einen Biohof gezielt oder eher zufällig nutzen, um hier informell Erfahrungen zu sammeln, die zu nachhaltigen Lebennstilen und Wirtschaftsweisen beitragen können. Im Rahmen von sechs Fallstudien wurden hierfür ökologisch wirtschaftende Landwirtschaftsbetriebe in Brandenburg im Hinblick auf die informelle Vermittlung von Wissen und Erfahrungen qualitativ untersucht. Mit Hilfe der Grounded Theory wird die Entstehung von informellen Lernprozessen im sozialen Umfeld der Höfe rekonstruiert. Neben dem empirischen Ausgangsmaterial erwiesen sich die handlungstheoretischen Konstrukte Lebenswelt, Habitus, Lebensstil und Lebensführung als hilfreicher Interpretationshintergrund. Mit diesen theoretischen Ansätzen werden die soziokulturellen Einflussfaktoren für Erfahren, Lernen und Vermitteln betont. Informelles Lernen wird so als ein sozial eingebetteter Prozess verstanden. Aus dieser, weniger subjektorientierten Perspektive treten dann Faktoren wie z.B. die Atmosphäre der Beziehung zwischen einer Person und dem Biohof, die sinnliche Wahrnehmung und die Art der Kommunikation in das Blickfeld der Analyse. In der Untersuchung wird eine Vielzahl von Verhaltensänderungen, Denkanstößen und Anregungen benannt, die im Zusammenhang mit den untersuchten Biohöfen geschildert wurden und die im Hinblick auf eine nachhaltige Entwicklung als förderlich eingeschätzt werden. Sie basieren, so der Ansatz der Arbeit, auf informellen Lernprozessen. Das zentrale Ergebnis der Fallanalysen ist eine strukturierte Zusammenstellung der im Untersuchungskontext relevanten Einflussfaktoren für erfolgreiches informelles Lernen. Als wesentliche erscheinen hierbei insbesondere zwei Variablen: zum einen hat sich das „wohlwollende Interesse“ als förderlich für das Zustandekommen und den Verlauf von informellen Lernprozessen herausgestellt. Mit diesem Begriff wird eine Einstellung dem Biohof gegenüber beschrieben, die ein Wohlgesonnensein, das Vertrauen und die Neugierde am Hof beinhaltet. Zum anderen scheint die „Erlebbarkeit“ der Angebote zur Wissensvermittlung für das informelle, habitus- und lebensstilbezogene Lernen bedeutsam zu sein. Ergänzend zu dem auf die lernenden Subjekte gerichteten Fokus wurden in der Forschungsarbeit auch Beweggründe der Betriebsleiter, für die jeweils praktizierte Wissens- und Erfahrungsvermittlung herausgearbeitet. Die Betrachtung wird durch die Zusammenstellung von Schwierigkeiten und Hindernissen abgerundet, die dem informellen Lernen vom Biohof entgegen stehen können. Ausgehend von den fallbezogenen Ergebnissen liefert die Arbeit damit eine Grundlage, um über die Bedeutung von Lernfeldern, die durch Biolandwirte, aber auch andere Akteursgruppen bereit gestellt werden, nachzudenken und um ihre gesellschaftliche Relevanz zu diskutieren.

Effect of management strategies on the performance of ruminant livestock production systems and the safety of plant and animal products in the city of Sikasso, Mali

The regional population growth in West Africa, and especially its urban centers, will bring about new and critical challenges for urban development policy, especially in terms of ensuring food security and providing employment for the growing population. (Peri-) urban livestock and vegetable production systems, which can contribute significantly to these endeavours, are limited by various constraints, amongst them limited access to expensive production factors and their (in)efficient use. To achieve sustainable production systems with low consumer health risks, that can meet the urban increased demand, this doctoral thesis determined nutrient use efficiencies in representative (peri-) urban livestock production systems in three West African cities, and investigated potential health risks for consumers ensuing from there. The field study, which was conducted during July 2007 to December 2009, undertook a comparative analysis of (peri-) urban livestock production strategies across 210 livestock keeping households (HH) in the three West African cities of Kano/Nigeria (84 HH), Bobo Dioulasso/Burkina Faso (63 HH) and Sikasso/Mali (63 HH). These livestock enterprises were belonging to the following three farm types: commercial gardening plus field crops and livestock (cGCL; 88 HH), commercial livestock plus subsistence field cropping (cLsC; 109 HH) and commercial gardening plus semi-commercial livestock (cGscL; 13 HH) which had been classified in a preceding study; they represented the diversity of (peri-) urban livestock production systems in West Africa. In the study on the efficiency of ruminant livestock production, lactating cowsand sheep herd units were differentiated based on whether feed supplements were offered to the animals at the homestead (Go: grazing only; Gsf: mainly grazing plus some supplement feeding). Inflows and outflows of nutrients were quantified in these herds during 18 months, and the effects of seasonal variations in nutrient availability on animals’ productivity and reproductive performance was determined in Sikasso. To assess the safety of animal products and vegetables, contamination sources of irrigated lettuce and milk with microbiological contaminants, and of tomato and cabbage with pesticide residues in (peri-) urban agriculture systems of Bobo Dioulasso and Sikasso were characterized at three occasions in 2009. Samples of irrigation water, organic fertilizer and ix lettuce were collected in 6 gardens, and samples of cabbage and tomato in 12 gardens; raw and curdled milk were sampled in 6 dairy herds. Information on health risks for consumers of such foodstuffs was obtained from 11 health centers in Sikasso. In (peri-) urban livestock production systems, sheep and goats dominated (P<0.001) in Kano compared to Bobo Dioulasso and Sikasso, while cattle and poultry were more frequent (P<0.001) in Bobo Dioulasso and Sikasso than in Kano. Across cities, ruminant feeding relied on grazing and homestead supplementation with fresh grasses, crop residues, cereal brans and cotton seed cake; cereal grains and brans were the major ingredients of poultry feeds. There was little association of gardens and livestock; likewise field cropping and livestock were rarely integrated. No relation existed between the education of the HH head and the adoption of improved management practices (P>0.05), but the proportion of HH heads with a long-term experience in (peri-) urban agriculture was higher in Kano and in Bobo Dioulasso than in Sikasso (P<0.001). Cattle and sheep fetched highest market prices in Kano; unit prices for goats and chicken were highest in Sikasso. Animal inflow, outflow and dairy herd growth rates were significantly higher (P<0.05) in the Gsf than in the Go cattle herds. Maize bran and cottonseed expeller were the main feeds offered to Gsf cows as dry-season supplement, while Gsf sheep received maize bran, fresh grasses and cowpea pods. The short periodic transhumance of Go dairy cows help them maintaining their live weight, whereas Gsf cows lost weight during the dry season despite supplement feeding at a rate of 1506 g dry matter per cow and day, resulting in low productivity and reproductive performance. The daily live weight gains of calves and lambs, respectively, were low and not significantly different between the Go and the Gsf system. However, the average live weight gains of lambs were significantly higher in the dry season (P<0.05) than in the rainy season because of the high pressure of gastrointestinal parasites and of Trypanosoma sp. In consequence, 47% of the sheep leaving the Go and Gsf herds died due to diseases during the study period. Thermo-tolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli contamination levels of irrigation water significantly exceeded WHO recommendations for the unrestricted irrigation of vegetables consumed raw. Microbial contamination levels of lettuce at the farm gate and the market place in Bobo Dioulasso and at the farm gate in Sikasso were higher than at the market place in Sikasso (P<0.05). Pesticide residues were detected in only one cabbage and one tomato sample and were below the maximum residue limit for consumption. Counts of thermo-tolerant coliforms and Escherichia coli were higher in curdled than in raw milk (P<0.05). From 2006 to x 2009, cases of diarrhea/vomiting and typhoid fever had increased by 11% and 48%, respectively, in Sikasso. For ensuring economically successful and ecologically viable (peri-) urban livestock husbandry and food safety of (peri-) urban foodstuffs of animal and plant origin, the dissemination and adoption of improved feeding practices, livestock healthcare and dung management are key. In addition, measures fostering the safety of animal products and vegetables including the appropriate use of wastewater in (peri-) urban agriculture, restriction to approve vegetable pesticides and the respect of their latency periods, and passing and enforcement of safety laws is required. Finally, the incorporation of environmentally sound (peri-) urban agriculture in urban planning by policy makers, public and private extension agencies and the urban farmers themselves is of utmost importance. To enable an efficient (peri-) urban livestock production in the future, research should concentrate on cost-effective feeding systems that allow meeting the animals’ requirement for production and reproduction. Thereby focus should be laid on the use of crop-residues and leguminous forages. The improvement of the milk production potential through crossbreeding of local cattle breeds with exotic breeds known for their high milk yield might be an accompanying option, but it needs careful supervision to prevent the loss of the local trypanotolerant purebreds.

The role of ligneous vegetation for livestock nutrition in the sub-Sahelian and Sudanian zones of West Africa: Potential effects of climate change

Climate change and variability in sub-Saharan West Africa is expected to have negative consequences for crop and livestock farming due to the strong dependence of these sectors on rainfall and natural resources, and the low adaptive capacity of crops farmers, agro-pastoralist and pastoralists in the region. The objective of this PhD research was to investigate the anticipated impacts of expected future climate change and variability on nutrition and grazing management of livestock in the prevailing extensive agro-pastoral and pastoral systems of the Sahelian and Sudanian zones of Burkina Faso. To achieve this, three studies were undertaken in selected village territories (100 km² each) in the southern Sahelian (Taffogo), northern Sudanian (Nobere, Safane) and southern Sudanian (Sokouraba) zone of the country during 2009 and 2010. The choice of two villages in the northern Sudanian zone was guided by the dichotomy between intense agricultural land use and high population density near Safane, and lower agricultural land use in the tampon zone between the village of Nobere and the National Park Kaboré Tambi of Pô. Using global positioning and geographical information systems tools, the spatio-temporal variation in the use of grazing areas by cattle, sheep and goats, and in their foraging behaviour in the four villages was assessed by monitoring three herds each per species during a one-year cycle (Chapter 2). Maximum itinerary lengths (km/d) were observed in the hot dry season (March-May); they were longer for sheep (18.8) and cattle (17.4) than for goats (10.5, p<0.05). Daily total grazing time spent on pasture ranged from 6 - 11 h with cattle staying longer on pasture than small ruminants (p<0.05). Feeding time accounted for 52% - 72% of daily time on pasture, irrespective of species. Herds spent longer time on pasture and walked farther distances in the southern Sahelian than the two Sudanian zones (p<0.01), while daily feeding time was longer in the southern Sudanian than in the other two zones (p>0.05). Proportional time spent resting decreased from the rainy (June - October) to the cool (November - February) and hot dry season (p<0.05), while in parallel the proportion of walking time increased. Feeding time of all species was to a significantly high proportion spent on wooded land (tree crown cover 5-10%, or shrub cover >10%) in the southern Sahelian zone, and on forest land (tree crown cover >10%) in the two Sudanian zones, irrespective of season. It is concluded that with the expansion of cropland in the whole region, remaining islands of wooded land, including also fields fallowed for three or more years with their considerable shrub cover, are particularly valuable pasturing areas for ruminant stock. Measures must be taken that counteract the shrinking of wooded land and forests across the whole region, including also active protection and (re)establishment of drought-tolerant fodder trees. Observation of the selection behaviour of the above herds of cattle and small ruminant as far as browse species were concerned, and interviews with 75 of Fulani livestock keepers on use of browse as feed by their ruminant stock and as remedies for animal disease treatment was undertaken (Chapter 3) in order to evaluate the consequence of climate change for the contribution of browse to livestock nutrition and animal health in the extensive grazing-based livestock systems. The results indicated that grazing cattle and small ruminants do make considerable use of browse species on pasture across the studied agro-ecological zones. Goats spent more time (p<0.01) feeding on browse species than sheep and cattle, which spent a low to moderate proportion of their feeding time on browsing in any of the study sites. As far as the agro-ecological zones were concerned, the contribution of browse species to livestock nutrition was more important in the southern Sahelian and northern Sudanian zone than the southern Sudanian zone, and this contribution is higher during the cold and hot dry season than during the rainy season. A total of 75 browse species were selected on pasture year around, whereby cattle strongly preferred Afzelia africana, Pterocarpus erinaceus and Piliostigma sp., while sheep and goats primarily fed on Balanites aegyptiaca, Ziziphus mauritiana and Acacia sp. Crude protein concentration (in DM) of pods or fruits of the most important browse species selected by goats, sheep and cattle ranged from 7% to 13% for pods, and from 10% to 18% for foliage. The concentration of digestible organic matter of preferred browse species mostly ranged from 40% to 60%, and the concentrations of total phenols, condensed tannins and acid detergent lignin were low. Linear regression analyses showed that browse preference on pasture is strongly related to its contents (% of DM) of CP, ADF, NDF and OM digestibility. Interviewed livestock keepers reported that browse species are increasingly use by their grazing animals, while for animal health care use of tree- and shrub-based remedies decreased over the last two decades. It is concluded that due to climate change with expected negative impact on the productivity of the herbaceous layer of communal pastures browse fodder will gain in importance for animal nutrition. Therefore re-establishment and dissemination of locally adapted browse species preferred by ruminants is needed to increase the nutritional situation of ruminant stock in the region and contribute to species diversity and soil fertility restoration in degraded pasture areas. In Chapter 4 a combination of household surveys and participatory research approaches was used in the four villages, and additionally in the village of Zogoré (southern Sahelian zone) and of Karangasso Vigué (northern Sudanian zone) to investigate pastoralists’ (n= 76) and agro-pastoralists’ (n= 83) perception of climate change, and their adaptation strategies in crop and livestock production at farm level. Across the three agro-ecological zones, the majority of the interviewees perceived an increase in maximum day temperatures and decrease of total annual rainfall over the last two decades. Perceptions of change in climate patterns were in line with meteorological data for increased temperatures while for total rainfall farmers’ views contrasted the rainfall records which showed a slight increase of precipitation. According to all interviewees climate change and variability have negative impacts on their crop and animal husbandry, and most of them already adopted some coping and adaptation strategies at farm level to secure their livelihoods and reduce negative impacts on their farming system. Although these strategies are valuable and can help crop and livestock farmers to cope with the recurrent droughts and climate variability, they are not effective against expected extreme climate events. Governmental and non-governmental organisations should develop effective policies and strategies at local, regional and national level to support farmers in their endeavours to cope with climate change phenomena; measures should be site-specific and take into account farmers’ experiences and strategies already in place.

Institutions, Behavior and Evolution

The three articles constituting this thesis are for reasons of content or method related to the following three fields in economics: Behavioral Economics, Evolutionary Game Theory and Formal Institutional Economics. A core element of these fields is the concept of individual preferences. Preferences are of central importance for the conceptional framework to analyze human behavior. They form the foundation for the theory of rational choice which is defined by the determination of the choice set and the selection of the most preferred alternative according to some consistency requirements. The theory of rational choice is based on a very simplified description of the problem of choice (object function and constraints). However, that choices depend on many more factors is for instance propagated by psychological theories and is supported by many empirical and experimental studies. This thesis adds to a better understanding of individual behavior to the extent that the evolution of certain characteristics of preferences and their consequences on human behavior forms the overarching theme of the dissertation. The long-term effect of evolutionary forces on a particular characteristic of importance in the theoretical, empirical and experimental economic literature, the concept of inequality aversion, is subject of the article “The evolution of inequality aversion in a simplified game of life” (Chapter 4). The contribution of the article is the overcoming of a restriction of former approaches to analyze the evolution of preferences in very simple environments. By classifying human interaction into three central economic games, the article provides a first step towards a simplified and sufficiently complete description of the interaction environment. Within such an environment the article characterizes the evolutionary stable preference distribution. One result shows, that the interaction of the aforementioned three classes can stabilize a preference of inequality aversion in the subpopulation which is favored in the problem of redistribution. The two remaining articles are concerned with social norms, which dissemination is determined by medium-run forces of cultural evolution. The article “The impact of market innovations on the evolution of social norms: the sustainability case.“ (Chapter 2) studies the interrelation between product innovations which are relevant from a sustainability perspective and an according social norm in consumption. This relation is based on a conformity bias in consumption and the attempt to avoid cognitive dissonances resulting from non-compliant consumption. Among others, it is shown that a conformity bias on the consumption side can lead to multiple equilibria on the side of norm adoption. The article “Evolution of cooperation in social dilemmas: signaling internalized norms.” (Chapter 3) studies the emergence of cooperation in social dilemmas based on the signaling of social norms. The article provides a potential explanation of cooperative behavior, which does not rely on the assumption of structured populations or on the unmotivated ability of social norms to restrict individual actions or strategy spaces. A comprehensive result of the single articles is the explanation of the phenomenon of partial norm adaption or dissemination of preferences. The plurality of the applied approaches with respect to the proximity to the rational choice approach and regarding the underlying evolutionary mechanics is a particular strength of the thesis. It shows the equality of these approaches in their potential to explain the phenomenon of cooperation in environments that provide material incentives for defective behavior. This also points to the need of a unified framework considering the biological and cultural coevolution of preference patterns.

Schauder – Zur Dekonstruktion eines Spürens

Zusammenfassung: Ziel der Arbeit ist den Sinn von Schauder philosophisch zu erhellen. An einem Einzelphänomen, wie es so bisher nicht behandelt wurde, wird zugleich das Geflecht von Affekt/Emotion/Gefühl, gestützt auf Hegel, Heidegger, Husserl, Freud und Lacan, in immer neuen Ansätzen kritisch reflektiert und Zug um Zug mit Derrida dekonstruiert. In einem Textverfahren, das sich auch grafisch durch gegenübergestellte Kolumnen auszeichnet, werden heterogene Ansätze zum Sinn von Schauder mit dekonstruktivistischen Einsichten konfrontiert. Die Ansätze, Schauder über Datum, Begriff, Phänomen oder Strukturelement bestimmen zu wollen, durchdringen sich dabei mit denjenigen, die sich einer solchen Bestimmung entziehen (Hegels Negativität, Heideggers Seinsentzug oder Lacans Signifikantenmangel). Am Fokus Schauder, an dem sich das Fiktive einer mit sich selbst identischen Präsenz besonders eindringlich darstellt, werden so spezifische Aporien der Metaphysik der Präsenz entfaltet und die Geschlossenheit logozentristischer Systeme in die Bewegung einer anderen Öffnung und Schließung im Sinn der Schrift bzw. des allgemeinen Textes transformiert. Neben der différance, dem Entzug der Metapher, dem Supplement und dem Gespenstischen stützt sich die Arbeit auf die Iterabilität, bei der im selben Zug die Identität des Sinns gestiftet und zerstreut wird (Dissemination). Im Kapitel Piloerection werden Ambivalenzen und Paradoxien des Schauders am Beispiel von computergestützten empirisch-psychologischen Studien aufgezeigt. Im Kapitel Atopologie des Schauders prädikative, propositionale und topologische Bedingungen zum Sinn von Schauder analysiert und dekonstruiert. Ebenso, im Folgekapitel Etymon, etymologische und technisch-mediale Bedingungen. Im Schlußkapitel Maß, Anmaß, Unmaß der Empfindung des Schauders wird am Beispiel der konkreten Beiträge zum Schauder von Aristoteles, Kant, Fechner, Otto, Klages, Lorenz und Adorno aufgezeigt, dass (1) ein Schauder nicht von einem Außen aus an-gemessen werden kann, (2) sich im Schauder die metaphysische Opposition von Fiktion und Realität in einer Unentscheidbarkeit zerstreut, (3) dass trotz der Heterogenität der Ansätze in diesen Beiträgen eine Komplizenschaft zum Ausdruck kommt: ein Begehren nach Präsenz, das durch den Ausschluß des Anderen zugleich die Gewalt des Einen produziert, (4) dass der Signifikant Schauder, der selbst in Abwesenheit eines Referenten, eines bestimmten Signifikats, einer aktuellen Bedeutungs­intention, eines Sen­ders oder Empfängers funktioniert, als verändertes Zu­rückbleiben eines differenzieller Zeichens betrachtet werden muss, als Effekt von Spuren, die sich nur in ihrem eige­nen Auslöschen ereignen. Die Arbeit schließt mit dem Vorschlag, Spüren jenseits von Arché, Telos oder Eschaton, jenseits eines Phallogozentrismus in der derridaschen Spur zu denken. Nicht zuletzt über diese Pfropfung, wie sie im Französischen [trace] so nicht möglich ist, schließt sie als deutschsprachiger Beitrag an sein Werk an.

Strategies towards evaluation beyond scientific impact

Various research fields, like organic agricultural research, are dedicated to solving real-world problems and contributing to sustainable development. Therefore, systems research and the application of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches are increasingly endorsed. However, research performance depends not only on self-conception, but also on framework conditions of the scientific system, which are not always of benefit to such research fields. Recently, science and its framework conditions have been under increasing scrutiny as regards their ability to serve societal benefit. This provides opportunities for (organic) agricultural research to engage in the development of a research system that will serve its needs. This article focuses on possible strategies for facilitating a balanced research evaluation that recognises scientific quality as well as societal relevance and applicability. These strategies are (a) to strengthen the general support for evaluation beyond scientific impact, and (b) to provide accessible data for such evaluations. Synergies of interest are found between open access movements and research communities focusing on global challenges and sustainability. As both are committed to increasing the societal benefit of science, they may support evaluation criteria such as knowledge production and dissemination tailored to societal needs, and the use of open access. Additional synergies exist between all those who scrutinise current research evaluation systems for their ability to serve scientific quality, which is also a precondition for societal benefit. Here, digital communication technologies provide opportunities to increase effectiveness, transparency, fairness and plurality in the dissemination of scientific results, quality assurance and reputation. Furthermore, funders may support transdisciplinary approaches and open access and improve data availability for evaluation beyond scientific impact. If they begin to use current research information systems that include societal impact data while reducing the requirements for narrative reports, documentation burdens on researchers may be relieved, with the funders themselves acting as data providers for researchers, institutions and tailored dissemination beyond academia.