The Ri chicken breed and livelihoods in North Vietnam: characterization and prospects

For the last twenty years, the consumption of poultry meat has boomed in Vietnam as in the rest of the developing world. Capital-intensive production has grown rapidly to satisfy this demand. Based on a few numbers of genetically uniform strains, these systems threaten biodiversity. In Vietnam, both rural and urban households still keep indigenous chickens as part of a diversified livelihood portfolio. In line with the national in situ conservation strategy, this study approached the context of local poultry keeping in two rural and one suburban districts of Northern Vietnam. It aimed at understanding households’ willingness, constraints and opportunities for practice improvement, including breeds’ management. As the Ri chicken constitutes the large majority of backyard flocks, two particular objectives of this study are the morpho-biometric characterisation of phenotypic diversity among individuals classified as Ri by farmers and an assessment of their productive potential. Chicken was found to hold a different place in livelihoods of the three districts with consequences on the management of genetic resources. The most favourable conditions for improvement of the Ri breed was found in the rural district of Luong-Son, due to market integration. In the more remote district of Ky-Son, living standards were lower and much would be gained from Ri conservation. Ri breed was the most threatened in the suburban Gia-Lam district, where poultry was a minor side-activity, lacking incentive for genetic management. From motives and constraints, tracks about breeding goals are suggested. Further considerations about conservation, improvement, market integration and livelihoods are proposed.

The Koundoum sheep breed in Niger: morpho-biometric study and description of the production system

The diffusion of highly productive breeds across developing countries goes along with a neglect of indigenous breeds, which are well suited to their environment but often show low yields. Thus, in Niger, the flock of Koundoum sheep are rapidly decreasing. The Koundoum is one of the few wool sheep breeds of Africa and shows important adaptive feature to its native environment, i.e. the humid pastures on the banks of the Niger River. To characterise the breed and to understand its production context, a survey has been conducted in 104 herds in four communes along the Niger River (Kollo, Tillabery, Say and Tera). Nine body measurements, including live weight, were taken on 180 adult sheep (101 females and 79 males). The herds varied from 2 to 60 heads, with a median size of eight animals and two thirds of the herds having less than 10 animals. Mainly fed on natural pastures, 85.6% of the herds received crop residues. Only natural mating was practiced. Veterinary care was restricted to anti-helminthic and some indigenous treatments. The frequent affiliation of breeders to professional unions appeared as favourable to the implementation of a collective conservation program. The Koundoum sheep were white or black coated, with the black colour being most frequent (75.6%). Wattles were present in both sexes at similar frequencies of around 14%. All biometric variables were significantly and positively correlated between them. The thoracic perimeter showed the best correlation with live weight in both males and females. Three variables were selected for live weight prediction: thoracic perimeter, height at withers and rump length. From the present study, it is expected that the in situ conservation of the Koundoum sheep will be highly problematic, due to lack of market opportunities for wool and the willingness of smallholders to get involved in pure Koundoum rearing.

Konzeption eines generischen Vorgehensmodells zur strategieorientierten und partizipativen Einführung komplexer Softwaresysteme unter Berücksichtigung organisatorischer Gestaltungsprozesse

Die Dissertation befasst sich mit der Einführung komplexer Softwaresysteme, die, bestehend aus einer Kombination aus parametrisierter Standardsoftware gepaart mit Wettbewerbsvorteil sichernden Individualsoftwarekomponenten, keine Software-Engineering-Projekte im klassischen Sinn mehr darstellen, sondern einer strategieorientierten Gestaltung von Geschäftsprozessen und deren Implementierung in Softwaresystemen bedürfen. Die Problemstellung einer adäquaten Abwägung zwischen TCO-optimierender Einführung und einer gleichzeitigen vollständigen Unterstützung der kritischen Erfolgsfaktoren des Unternehmens ist hierbei von besonderer Bedeutung. Der Einsatz integrierter betriebswirtschaftlicher Standardsoftware, mit den Möglichkeiten einer TCO-Senkung, jedoch ebenfalls der Gefahr eines Verlustes von Alleinstellungsmerkmalen am Markt durch Vereinheitlichungstendenzen, stellt ein in Einführungsprojekten wesentliches zu lösendes Problem dar, um Suboptima zu vermeiden. Die Verwendung von Vorgehensmodellen, die sich oftmals an klassischen Softwareentwicklungsprojekten orientieren oder vereinfachte Phasenmodelle für das Projektmanagement darstellen, bedingt eine fehlende Situationsadäquanz in den Detailsituationen der Teilprojekte eines komplexen Einführungsprojektes. Das in dieser Arbeit entwickelte generische Vorgehensmodell zur strategieorientierten und partizipativen Einführung komplexer Softwaresysteme im betriebswirtschaftlichen Anwendungsbereich macht - aufgrund der besonders herausgearbeiteten Ansätze zu einer strategieorientierten Einführung, respektive Entwicklung derartiger Systeme sowie aufgrund der situationsadäquaten Vorgehensstrategien im Rahmen der Teilprojektorganisation � ein Softwareeinführungsprojekt zu einem Wettbewerbsfaktor stärkenden, strategischen Element im Unternehmen. Die in der Dissertation diskutierten Überlegungen lassen eine Vorgehensweise präferieren, die eine enge Verschmelzung des Projektes zur Organisationsoptimierung mit dem Softwareimplementierungsprozess impliziert. Eine Priorisierung der Geschäftsprozesse mit dem Ziel, zum einen bei Prozessen mit hoher wettbewerbsseitiger Priorität ein organisatorisches Suboptimum zu vermeiden und zum anderen trotzdem den organisatorischen Gestaltungs- und den Systemimplementierungsprozess schnell und ressourcenschonend durchzuführen, ist ein wesentliches Ergebnis der Ausarbeitungen. Zusätzlich führt die Ausgrenzung weiterer Prozesse vom Einführungsvorgang zunächst zu einem Produktivsystem, welches das Unternehmen in den wesentlichen Punkten abdeckt, das aber ebenso in späteren Projektschritten zu einem System erweitert werden kann, welches eine umfassende Funktionalität besitzt. Hieraus ergeben sich Möglichkeiten, strategischen Anforderungen an ein modernes Informationssystem, das die kritischen Erfolgsfaktoren eines Unternehmens konsequent unterstützen muss, gerecht zu werden und gleichzeitig ein so weit als möglich ressourcenschonendes, weil die Kostenreduktionsaspekte einer Standardlösung nutzend, Projekt durchzuführen. Ein weiterer wesentlicher Aspekt ist die situationsadäquate Modellinstanziierung, also die projektspezifische Anpassung des Vorgehensmodells sowie die situationsadäquate Wahl der Vorgehensweisen in Teilprojekten und dadurch Nutzung der Vorteile der verschiedenen Vorgehensstrategien beim konkreten Projektmanagement. Der Notwendigkeit der Entwicklung einer Projektorganisation für prototypingorientiertes Vorgehen wird in diesem Zusammenhang ebenfalls Rechnung getragen. Die Notwendigkeit der Unternehmen, sich einerseits mit starken Differenzierungspotenzialen am Markt hervorzuheben und andererseits bei ständig sinkenden Margen einer Kostenoptimierung nachzukommen, lässt auch in Zukunft das entwickelte Modell als erfolgreich erscheinen. Hinzu kommt die Tendenz zu Best-Of-Breed-Ansätzen und komponentenbasierten Systemen im Rahmen der Softwareauswahl, die eine ausgesprochen differenzierte Vorgehensweise in Projekten verstärkt notwendig machen wird. Durch die in das entwickelte Modell integrierten Prototyping-Ansätze wird der auch in Zukunft an Bedeutung gewinnenden Notwendigkeit der Anwenderintegration Rechnung getragen.

Leistungsfähigkeit und Robustheit der Endzuchtgruppe aus dem Zuchtprogramm der "Witzenhäuser Landschaftspflegeziege"

Ziegenrassen, die in Deutschland in der Landschaftspflege eingesetzt werden, besitzen vorwiegend den Charakter einer intensiven Produktionsausrichtung. Das vorherrschende marginale Futterangebot auf Magerrasen-Biotopen kann die hohen Anforderungen auf das Fütterungsniveau der Tiere nicht erfüllen. Angeführt durch diese Ausgangssituation, begann das Fachgebiet Internationale Nutztierzucht und -haltung der Universität Kassel in Witzenhausen mit dem "Zuchtprogramm der Witzenhäuser Landschaftspflegeziege". Ziel dieser Untersuchung war es, die Leistungsfähigkeit und Robustheit der Endzuchtgruppe aus dem Zuchtprogramm über einen längeren Zeitraum (2001 bis 2003) anhand von definierten Merkmalen zu erfassen und zu dokumentieren. Alle Merkmale wurden zum selben Zeitpunkt ebenfalls an einer Kaschmirziegenherde, einer der drei Ursprungsrassen, zum Vergleich erhoben. Ausgangspunkt der Untersuchung, neben dem Hauptuntersuchungsareal des Naturschutzgebiets Ebenhöhe-Liebenberg, war die Lehr- und Versuchsbetrieb der Universität Kassel in Witzenhausen in Neu-Eichenberg. Achtung: Die Seitenzählung der Printausgabe ist mit der Online-Publikation nicht identisch.

Immunologisches Reaktionsvermögen als Indikator für Belastungen bei der Milchkuh

Mit ansteigenden Jahresmilchleistungen werden die Kühe einer hohen metabolischen Belastung ausgesetzt, die bei einer suboptimalen Gestaltung der Lebensbedingungen mit einer Erhöhung der Inzidenzrate von Faktorenkrankheiten einhergehen kann. Im Vordergrund der Untersuchungen stand die Frage, inwieweit metabolische Belastungszustände von Milchkühen in der Phase des Puerperiums und in Abhängigkeit von der Milchleistung sowie Belastungen durch eine klinische Erkrankung zu Beginn der Laktation mit Hilfe von Parametern der immunologischen Abwehr und der Reaktion des Immunsystems auf eine Challenge dargestellt werden können. In die Untersuchung wurden insgesamt 68 klinisch gesunde sowie 20 klinisch erkrankte Milchkühe der Rasse Holstein Friesian einbezogen. Die Untersuchungen erfolgten in den Zeiträumen 10-21 Tage sowie 14-15 Wochen nach der Kalbung. Dazu wurden an jeweils drei Untersuchungstagen (Tag 0, 2, 7) Blutproben aus der Vena jugularis entnommen. Zur Stimulierung des unspezifischen Immunsystems wurde in beiden Versuchszeiträumen an den Untersuchungstagen 0 und 2 der Paramunitätsinducer Zylexis® appliziert. Ferner wurde den Kühen zu Beginn der Laktation der Tollwutimpfstoff Rabisin® verabreicht. Für die Auswertung wurden die untersuchten Milchkühe in Gruppen unterteilt. Die klinisch gesunden Kühe wurden anhand der nach Fett und Eiweiß korrigierten 305-Tage-Leistung in die Gruppe M = mittleres Leistungsniveau (Milchmengenleistung 6.500-8.990 kg) und die Gruppe H = hohes Leistungsniveau (Milchmengenleistung 9.000-12.500 kg) aufgeteilt. Die klinisch erkrankten Kühe wurden in der Gruppe K zusammengefasst. Zur Beurteilung der Immunabwehr wurden die Parameter Phagozytoseaktivität der isolierten Neutrophilen Granulozyten, die Vollblutbakterizidie, die Lymphozytenproliferation mit den Mitogenen ConA, PHA und PWM sowie die spezifische Antikörperbildung gegen Tollwut untersucht. Anhand der Parameter Phagozytoseaktivität, Vollblutbakterizidie und Lymphozytenproliferation wurde zusätzlich die Reaktion auf die Challenge mit dem Paramunitätsinducer Zylexis® überprüft. Zur Erfassung der metabolischen Belastungszustände wurden verschiedene Stoffwechselparameter und hämatologische Parameter erfasst. Zu Beginn der Laktation konnten bei den Kühen in der mittleren und hohen Leistungsgruppe signifikant höhere Konzentrationen an ß-Hydroxybuttersäure und Freien Fettsäuren im Vergleich zu der Laktationsmitte festgestellt werden. Die Kühe mit einem hohen Leistungsniveau zeigten darüber hinaus eine signifikant höhere Bilirubinkonzentration am Laktationsanfang gegenüber der Laktationsmitte. Die mittlere Konzentration der freien Fettsäuren lag bei den Kühen in beiden Leistungsgruppen oberhalb des Referenzbereiches und wies auf eine negative Energiebilanz zu Laktationsbeginn hin. Die mittleren Konzentrationen bzw. Enzymaktivitäten der Parameter Cholesterol, Harnstoff, AST, GLDH, γ-GT, Gesamtprotein, Kalzium und Phosphor wiesen in der Laktationsmitte signifikant höhere Werte als am Laktationsanfang auf. Dabei lagen die mittleren Enzymaktivitäten von AST und GLDH sowie die Konzentrationen von Harnstoff und Gesamtprotein in der Laktationsmitte oberhalb des Referenzbereiches. Die untersuchten Stoffwechselparameter wurden durch die Challenge mit einem Paramunitätsinducer nicht signifikant beeinflusst. Hinsichtlich der Immunparameter zeigten die Milchkühe mit einem mittleren Leistungsniveau in Abhängigkeit vom Laktationszeitpunkt zu Beginn der Laktation eine signifikant höhere Phagozytoseaktivität gegenüber der Laktationsmitte (p < 0,05). Die Gruppe mit einem hohen Leistungsniveau wies dagegen keine signifikanten Unterschiede in der Phagozytoseaktivität zwischen den beiden Untersuchungszeiträumen auf. Bei den Immunparametern Vollblutbakterizidie und Lymphozytenproliferation konnten bei den Kühen beider Gruppen keine signifikanten Unterschiede in Abhängigkeit vom Laktationszeitpunkt festgestellt werden. Im Hinblick auf die Milchleistung wiesen die Kühe in den beiden Leistungsgruppen am Untersuchungstag 0 weder zu Beginn noch in der Mitte der Laktation signifikante Unterschiede bezüglich der untersuchten Immunparameter auf. Nach der Challenge durch den Paramunitätsinducer reagierten einzig die Kühe mit einer mittleren Leistung zu Beginn der Laktation auf die Challenge mit einer signifikanten Reduzierung der mittleren Phagozytoseaktivität von Tag 0 zu Tag 2 (p < 0,05). Bei den weiteren untersuchten Immunparametern konnten weder bei den Kühen mit einer mittleren noch mit einer hohen Leistung eine signifikante Reaktion auf die Challenge nachgewiesen werden. Die klinisch erkrankten Kühe zeigten im Vergleich zu den klinisch gesunden Kühen keine unterschiedlichen Konzentrationen bzw. Aktivitäten der untersuchten Stoffwechselparameter. Auch konnten anhand der immunologischen Parameter und der Reaktion auf die Challenge keine Unterschiede zwischen den klinisch gesunden Kühen festgestellt werden. Die in der vorliegenden Untersuchung geprüften metabolischen Belastungen konnten weder anhand der Immunparameter noch durch die Reaktion der Immunparameter auf eine Challenge dargestellt werden. Es wird geschlussfolgert, dass das immunologische Reaktionsvermögen nicht geeignet ist, um als Indikator für Belastungszustände bei der Milchkuh herangezogen zu werden.

Evolving Classifiers - Evolutionary Algorithms in Data Mining

Data mining means to summarize information from large amounts of raw data. It is one of the key technologies in many areas of economy, science, administration and the internet. In this report we introduce an approach for utilizing evolutionary algorithms to breed fuzzy classifier systems. This approach was exercised as part of a structured procedure by the students Achler, Göb and Voigtmann as contribution to the 2006 Data-Mining-Cup contest, yielding encouragingly positive results.

Evolving Distributed Algorithms with Genetic Programming

Distributed systems are one of the most vital components of the economy. The most prominent example is probably the internet, a constituent element of our knowledge society. During the recent years, the number of novel network types has steadily increased. Amongst others, sensor networks, distributed systems composed of tiny computational devices with scarce resources, have emerged. The further development and heterogeneous connection of such systems imposes new requirements on the software development process. Mobile and wireless networks, for instance, have to organize themselves autonomously and must be able to react to changes in the environment and to failing nodes alike. Researching new approaches for the design of distributed algorithms may lead to methods with which these requirements can be met efficiently. In this thesis, one such method is developed, tested, and discussed in respect of its practical utility. Our new design approach for distributed algorithms is based on Genetic Programming, a member of the family of evolutionary algorithms. Evolutionary algorithms are metaheuristic optimization methods which copy principles from natural evolution. They use a population of solution candidates which they try to refine step by step in order to attain optimal values for predefined objective functions. The synthesis of an algorithm with our approach starts with an analysis step in which the wanted global behavior of the distributed system is specified. From this specification, objective functions are derived which steer a Genetic Programming process where the solution candidates are distributed programs. The objective functions rate how close these programs approximate the goal behavior in multiple randomized network simulations. The evolutionary process step by step selects the most promising solution candidates and modifies and combines them with mutation and crossover operators. This way, a description of the global behavior of a distributed system is translated automatically to programs which, if executed locally on the nodes of the system, exhibit this behavior. In our work, we test six different ways for representing distributed programs, comprising adaptations and extensions of well-known Genetic Programming methods (SGP, eSGP, and LGP), one bio-inspired approach (Fraglets), and two new program representations called Rule-based Genetic Programming (RBGP, eRBGP) designed by us. We breed programs in these representations for three well-known example problems in distributed systems: election algorithms, the distributed mutual exclusion at a critical section, and the distributed computation of the greatest common divisor of a set of numbers. Synthesizing distributed programs the evolutionary way does not necessarily lead to the envisaged results. In a detailed analysis, we discuss the problematic features which make this form of Genetic Programming particularly hard. The two Rule-based Genetic Programming approaches have been developed especially in order to mitigate these difficulties. In our experiments, at least one of them (eRBGP) turned out to be a very efficient approach and in most cases, was superior to the other representations.

Status and Potential of Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Xishuangbanna, southern P.R. China

With Chinas rapid economic development during the last decades, the national demand for livestock products has quadrupled within the last 20 years. Most of that increase in demand has been answered by subsidized industrialized production systems, while million of smallholders, which still provide the larger share of livestock products in the country, have been neglected. Fostering those systems would help China to lower its strong urban migration streams, enhance the livelihood of poorer rural population and provide environmentally save livestock products which have a good chance to satisfy customers demand for ecological food. Despite their importance, China’s smallholder livestock keepers have not yet gained appropriate attention from governmental authorities and researchers. However, profound analysis of those systems is required so that adequate support can lead to a better resource utilization and productivity in the sector. To this aim, this pilot study analyzes smallholder livestock production systems in Xishuangbanna, located in southern China. The area is bordered by Lao and Myanmar and geographically counts as tropical region. Its climate is characterized by dry and temperate winters and hot summers with monsoon rains from May to October. While the regionis plain, at about 500 m asl above sea level in the south, outliers of the Himalaya mountains reach out into the north of Xishuangbanna, where the highest peak reaches 2400 m asl. Except of one larger city, Jinghong, Xishuangbanna mainly is covered by tropical rainforest, areas under agricultural cultivation and villages. The major income is generated through inner-Chinese tourism and agricultural production. Intensive rubber plantations are distinctive for the lowland plains while small-scaled traditional farms are scattered in the mountane regions. In order to determine the current state and possible future chances of smallholder livestock production in that region, this study analyzed the current status of the smallholder livestock sector in the Naban River National Nature Reserve (NRNNR), an area which is largely representative for the whole prefecture. It covers an area of about 50square kilometer and reaches from 470 up to 2400 m asl. About 5500 habitants of different ethnic origin are situated in 24 villages. All data have been collected between October 2007 and May 2010. Three major objectives have been addressed in the study: 1. Classifying existing pig production systems and exploring respective pathways for development 2. Quantifying the performance of pig breeding systemsto identify bottlenecks for production 3. Analyzing past and current buffalo utilization to determine the chances and opportunities of buffalo keeping in the future In order to classify the different pig production s ystems, a baseline survey (n=204, stratified cluster sampling) was carried out to gain data about livestock species, numbers, management practices, cultivated plant species and field sizes as well associo-economic characteristics. Sampling included two clusters at village level (altitude, ethnic affiliation), resulting in 13 clusters of which 13-17 farms were interviewed respectively. Categorical Principal Component Analysis (CatPCA) and a two-step clustering algorithm have been applied to identify determining farm characteristics and assort recorded households into classes of livestock production types. The variables keep_sow_yes/no, TLU_pig, TLU_buffalo, size_of_corn_fields, altitude_class, size_of_tea_plantationand size_of_rubber_fieldhave been found to be major determinants for the characterization of the recorded farms. All farms have extensive or semi-intensive livestock production, pigs and buffaloes are predominant livestock species while chicken and aquaculture are available but play subordinate roles for livelihoods. All pig raisers rely on a single local breed, which is known as Small Ear Pig (SMEP) in the region. Three major production systemshave been identified: Livestock-corn based LB; 41%), rubber based (RB; 39%) and pig based (PB;20%) systems. RB farms earn high income from rubber and fatten 1.9 ±1.80 pigs per household (HH), often using purchased pig feed at markets. PB farms own similar sized rubber plantations and raise 4.7 ±2.77 pigs per HH, with fodder mainly being cultivated and collected in theforest. LB farms grow corn, rice and tea and keep 4.6 ±3.32 pigs per HH, also fed with collected and cultivated fodder. Only 29% of all pigs were marketed (LB: 20%; RB: 42%; PB: 25%), average annual mortality was 4.0 ±4.52 pigs per farm (LB: 4.6 ±3.68; RB: 1.9 ±2.14; PB: 7.1 ±10.82). Pig feed mainly consists of banana pseudo stem, corn and rice hives and is prepared in batches about two to three times per week. Such fodder might be sufficient in energy content but lacks appropriate content of protein. Pigs therefore suffer from malnutrition, which becomes most critical in the time before harvest season around October. Farmers reported high occurrences of gastrointestinal parasites in carcasses and often pig stables were wet and filled with manure. Deficits in nutritional and hygienic management are major limits for development and should be the first issues addressed to improve productivity. SME pork was found to be known and referred by local customers in town and by richer lowland farmers. However, high prices and lacking availability of SME pork at local wet-markets were the reasons which limited purchase. If major management constraints are overcome, pig breeders (PB and LB farms) could increase the share of marketed pigs for town markets and provide fatteners to richer RB farmers. RB farmers are interested in fattening pigs for home consumption but do not show any motivation for commercial pig raising. To determine the productivity of input factors in pig production, eproductive performance, feed quality and quantity as well as weight development of pigs under current management were recorded. The data collection included a progeny history survey covering 184 sows and 437 farrows, bi-weekly weighing of 114 pigs during a 16-months time-span on 21 farms (10 LB and 11 PB) as well as the daily recording of feed quality and quantity given to a defined number of pigs on the same 21 farms. Feed samples of all recorded ingredients were analyzed for their respective nutrient content. Since no literature values on thedigestibility of banana pseudo stem – which is a major ingredient of traditional pig feed in NRNNR – were found, a cross-sectional digestibility trial with 2x4 pigs has been conducted on a station in the research area. With the aid of PRY Herd Life Model, all data have been utilized to determine thesystems’ current (Status Quo = SQ) output and the productivity of the input factor “feed” in terms of saleable life weight per kg DM feed intake and monetary value of output per kg DM feed intake.Two improvement scenarios were simulated, assuming 1) that farmers adopt a culling managementthat generates the highest output per unit input (Scenario 1; SC I) and 2) that through improved feeding, selected parameters of reproduction are improved by 30% (SC II). Daily weight gain averaged 55 ± 56 g per day between day 200 and 600. The average feed energy content of traditional feed mix was 14.92 MJ ME. Age at first farrowing averaged 14.5 ± 4.34 months, subsequent inter-farrowing interval was 11.4 ± 2.73 months. Littersize was 5.8 piglets and weaning age was 4.3 ± 0.99 months. 18% of piglets died before weaning. Simulating pig production at actualstatus, it has been show that monetary returns on inputs (ROI) is negative (1:0.67), but improved (1:1.2) when culling management was optimized so that highest output is gained per unit feed input. If in addition better feeding, controlled mating and better resale prices at fixed dates were simulated, ROI further increased to 1:2.45, 1:2.69, 1:2.7 and 1:3.15 for four respective grower groups. Those findings show the potential of pork production, if basic measures of improvement are applied. Futureexploration of the environment, including climate, market-season and culture is required before implementing the recommended measures to ensure a sustainable development of a more effective and resource conserving pork production in the future. The two studies have shown that the production of local SME pigs plays an important role in traditional farms in NRNNR but basic constraints are limiting their productivity. However, relatively easy approaches are sufficient for reaching a notable improvement. Also there is a demand for more SME pork on local markets and, if basic constraints have been overcome, pig farmers could turn into more commercial producers and provide pork to local markets. By that, environmentally safe meat can be offered to sensitive consumers while farmers increase their income and lower the risk of external shocks through a more diverse income generating strategy. Buffaloes have been found to be the second important livestock species on NRNNR farms. While they have been a core resource of mixed smallholderfarms in the past, the expansion of rubber tree plantations and agricultural mechanization are reasons for decreased swamp buffalo numbers today. The third study seeks to predict future utilization of buffaloes on different farm types in NRNNR by analyzing the dynamics of its buffalo population and land use changes over time and calculating labor which is required for keeping buffaloes in view of the traction power which can be utilized for field preparation. The use of buffaloes for field work and the recent development of the egional buffalo population were analyzed through interviews with 184 farmers in 2007/2008 and discussions with 62 buffalo keepers in 2009. While pig based farms (PB; n=37) have abandoned buffalo keeping, 11% of the rubber based farms (RB; n=71) and 100% of the livestock-corn based farms (LB; n=76) kept buffaloes in 2008. Herd size was 2.5 ±1.80 (n=84) buffaloes in early 2008 and 2.2 ±1.69 (n=62) in 2009. Field work on own land was the main reason forkeeping buffaloes (87.3%), but lending work buffaloes to neighbors (79.0%) was also important. Other purposes were transport of goods (16.1%), buffalo trade (11.3%) and meat consumption(6.4%). Buffalo care required 6.2 ±3.00 working hours daily, while annual working time of abuffalo was 294 ±216.6 hours. The area ploughed with buffaloes remained constant during the past 10 years despite an expansion of land cropped per farm. Further rapid replacement of buffaloes by tractors is expected in the near future. While the work economy is drastically improved by the use of tractors, buffaloes still can provide cheap work force and serve as buffer for economic shocks on poorer farms. Especially poor farms, which lack alternative assets that could quickly be liquidizedin times of urgent need for cash, should not abandon buffalo keeping. Livestock has been found to be a major part of small mixed farms in NRNNR. The general productivity was low in both analyzed species, buffaloes and pigs. Productivity of pigs can be improved through basic adjustments in feeding, reproductive and hygienic management, and with external support pig production could further be commercialized to provide pork and weaners to local markets and fattening farms. Buffalo production is relatively time intensive, and only will be of importance in the future to very poor farms and such farms that cultivate very small terraces on steep slopes. These should be encouraged to further keep buffaloes. With such measures, livestock production in NRNNR has good chances to stay competitive in the future.

Opportunities and constraints of peri-urban buffalo and dairy cattle systems in Faisalabad, Punjab, Pakistan

In the big cities of Pakistan, peri-urban dairy production plays an important role for household income generation and the supply of milk and meat to the urban population. On the other hand, milk production in general, and peri-urban dairy production in particular, faces numerous problems that have been well known for decades. Peri-urban dairy producers have been especially neglected by politicians as well as non-government-organizations (NGOs). Against this background, a study in Pakistan’s third largest city, Faisalabad (Punjab Province), was carried out with the aims of gathering basic information, determining major constraints and identifying options for improvements of the peri-urban milk production systems. For data collection, 145 peri-urban households (HH) engaged in dairy production were interviewed face to face using a structured and pretested questionnaire with an interpreter. For analyses, HH were classified into three wealth groups according to their own perception. Thus, 38 HH were poor, 95 HH well off and 12 HH rich (26.2%, 65.5% and 8.3%, respectively). The richer the respondents perceived their HH, the more frequently they were actually in possession of high value HH assets like phones, bank accounts, motorbikes, tractors and cars. Although there was no difference between the wealth groups with respect to the number of HH members (about 10, range: 1 to 23), the educational level of the HH heads differed significantly: on average, heads of poor HH had followed education for 3 years, compared to 6 years for well off HH and 8 years for rich HH. About 40% of the poor and well off HH also had off-farm incomes, while the percentage was much higher - two thirds (67%) - for the rich HH. The majority of the HH were landless (62%); the rest (55 HH) possessed agricultural land from 0.1 to 10.1 ha (average 2.8 ha), where they were growing green fodder: maize, sorghum and pearl millet in summer; berseem, sugar cane and wheat were grown in winter. Dairy animals accounted for about 60% of the herds; the number of dairy animals per HH ranged from 2 to 50 buffaloes (Nili-Ravi breed) and from 0 to 20 cows (mostly crossbred, also Sahiwal). About 37% (n=54) of the HH did not keep cattle. About three quarters of the dairy animals were lactating. The majority of the people taking care of the animals were family workers; 17.3% were hired labourers (exclusively male), employed by 11 rich and 32 well off HH; none of the poor HH employed workers, but the percentages were 33.7% for the well off and 91.7% for the rich HH. The total number of workers increased significantly with increasing wealth (poor: 2.0; well off:2.5; rich: 3.4). Overall, 69 female labourers were recorded, making up 16.8% of employed workers and one fourth of the HH’s own labourers. Apparently, their only duty was to clean the animals´ living areas; only one of them was also watering and showering the animals. Poor HH relied more on female workers than the other two groups: 27.1% of the workers of poor HH were women, but only 14.8% and 6.8% of the labour force of well off and rich HH were female. Two thirds (70%) of the HH sold milk to dhodis (middlemen) and one third (35%) to neighbours; three HH (2%) did doorstep delivery and one HH (1%) had its own shop. The 91 HH keeping both species usually sold mixed milk (97%). Clients for mixed and pure buffalo milk were dhodis (78%, respectively 59%) and neighbours (28%, respectively 47%). The highest milk prices per liter (Pakistani Rupees, 100 PKR @ 0.8 Euro) were paid by alternative clients (44 PKR; 4 HH), followed by neighbours (40 PKR, 50 HH); dhodis paid lower prices (36 PKR, 99 HH). Prices for pure buffalo and mixed milk did not differ significantly. However, HH obtaining the maximum price from the respective clients for the respective type of milk got between 20% (mixed milk, alternative clients) and 68% (mixed milk, dhodi) more than HH fetching the minimum price. Some HH (19%) reported 7% higher prices for the current summer than the preceding winter. Amount of milk sold and distance from the HH to the city center did not influence milk prices. Respondents usually named problems that directly affected their income and that were directly and constantly visible to them, such as high costs, little space and fodder shortages. Other constraints that are only influencing their income indirectly, e.g. the relatively low genetic potential of their animals due to neglected breeding as well as the short- and long-term health problems correlated with imbalanced feeding and insufficient health care, were rarely named. The same accounts for problems accompanying improper dung management (storage, disposal, burning instead of recycling) for the environment and human health. Most of the named problems are linked to each other and should be addressed within the context of the entire system. Therefore, further research should focus on systematic investigations and improvement options, taking a holistic and interdisciplinary approach instead of only working in single fields. Concerted efforts of dairy farmers, researchers, NGOs and political decision makers are necessary to create an economic, ecological and social framework that allows dairy production to serve the entire society. For this, different improvement options should be tested in terms of their impact on environment and income of the farmers, as well as feasibility and sustainability in the peri-urban zones of Faisalabad.