Socio-economic characterization of integrated cropping systems in urban and peri-urban agriculture of Faisalabad, Pakistan

Faisalabad city is surrounded by agricultural lands, where farmers are growing vegetables, grain crops, and fodder for auto-consumption and local marketing. To study the socioeconomic impact and resource use in these urban and peri-urban agricultural production (UPA) systems, a baseline survey was conducted during 2009–2010. A total of 140 households were selected using a stratified sampling method and interviewed with a structured questionnaire. The results revealed that 96 % of the households rely on agriculture as their main occupation. Thirty percent of the households were owners of the land and the rest cultivated either rented or sharecropped land. Most of the families (70 %) were headed by a member with primary education, and only 10 % of the household head had a secondary school certificate. Irrigationwater was obtained from waste water (37 %), canals (27 %), and mixed alternative sources (36 %). A total of 35 species were cultivated in the UPA systems of which were 65% vegetables, 15% grain and fodder crops, and 5% medicinal plants. Fifty-nine percent of the households cultivated wheat, mostly for auto-consumption. The 51 % of the respondents grew cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L.) and gourds (Cucurbitaceae) in the winter and summer seasons, respectively. Group marketing was uncommon and most of the farmers sold their produce at the farm gate (45 %) and on local markets (43 %). Seeds and fertilizers were available from commission agents and dealers on a credit basis with the obligation to pay by harvested produce. A major problem reported by the UPA farmers of Faisalabad was the scarcity of high quality irrigation water, especially during the hot dry summer months, in addition to lacking adequate quantities of mineral fertilizers and other inputs during sowing time. Half of the respondents estimated their daily income to be less than 1.25 US$ and spent almost half of it on food. Monthly average household income and expenses were 334 and 237 US$, respectively.

In vitro characterization of two small nucleolytic ribozymes-the hairpin and the hammerhead ribozymes in their natural context

Hairpin Ribozyme kommen natürlich in den Minussträngen der Satelliten RNAs dreier Pflanzenviren (sTRsV, sArMV and sCYMoV) vor. In dieser Arbeit wurden mit dem Programm Mfold darin mehrere distinkte Sekundärstrukturelemente gefunden, die außerhalb des katalytischen Zentrums der Ribozyme lokalisieren. Verschiedene Varianten der drei Ribozyme wurden hergestellt und die Funktion der beobachteten peripheren Strukturelemente biochemisch untersucht. Die sTRsV Hairpin Ribozyme mit unterschiedlichen Längen in Arm C wiesen ähnliche cis-Spaltungsreaktionen auf, unabhängig von der Anzahl interner bulges in Arm C. Das gleiche Verhalten, jedoch bei schnelleren Spaltungsraten, wurde nach Entfernen der three-way junction, die 3’ von der Spaltstelle in Arm A liegt, beobachtet. Hier hat Arm C demnach keinen Einfluss auf die Katalyse, wogegen ein verlängerter Arm A die Reaktion verlangsamt. Unter den experimentellen Bedingungen war die Rückreaktion in Anwesenheit des natürlichen Arms A nicht messbar. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigten alle Varianten ohne die Arm A Erweiterung Ligationsaktivität, die am höchsten in dem Molekül mit dem längsten Arm C war, und gleichermaßen erniedrigt für zwei Varianten mit kürzerem Arm C. Keine der Reaktionen diverser sArMV Hairpin Ribozyme konnte reproduzierbar analysiert werden. Für das sCYMoV Hairpin Ribozym wurde schließlich in cis-Spaltungsreaktionen eine Zunahme der Geschwindigkeit mit Abnahme der Länge von Arm D beobachtet. Dies war der Fall in Anwesenheit der three-way junction in Arm A, nicht jedoch in ihrer Abwesenheit, wo Varianten mit unterschiedlichen Längen des Arms D ähnliche Spaltungsreaktionen aufwiesen. In Anwesenheit der three-way junction in Arm A war eine Reduzierung der Ligationsgeschwindigkeit zu beobachten, und bei ihrer Abwesenheit stieg diese mit der Länge von Arm D. Dies zeigt, dass sowohl die three-way junction in Arm A, als auch die Länge und Anzahl der bulges in Arm D die Reaktion des Hairpin Ribozyms aus sCYMoV beeinflussen, wobei sich Unterschiede in Vorwärts- und Rückreaktion auf die experimentellen Bedingungen zurückführen lassen. In zwei Serien wurde die zentrale five-way junction dieses Ribozyms durch verschiedene four-way junctions ersetzt. Die kinetischen Parameter der Selbstspaltung waren ähnlich für Varianten ohne Arm E auf, jedoch verlangsamt bei Varianten ohne Arm C. Dies zeigt, dass das sCYMoV Hairpin Ribozym auch um eine four-way junction gebildet werden kann, deren konstituierenden Helices jedoch nicht beliebig sind. In einem zweiten Projekt wurde die Konservierung von Hammerhead Ribozym-motiven, die bereits früher im Genom der Brassicacee A. thaliana gefunden worden waren, exemplarisch an zehn Mitgliedern dieser Familie untersucht. Da deren Genome nicht sequenziert sind, wurde PCR mit Primern angewandt, die für die A. thaliana Motive spezifisch waren. Damit konnten Ribozymmotive in allen untersuchten Brassicaceen außer B. nigra and B. oleracea gefunden werden. Diese gehören zu den sechs Brassica Pflanzen, für die der koreanische Botaniker U 1935 im “triangle of U” die genetische Verwandtschaft beschrieb. Darin ist B. carinata, für die Ribozymmotive gezeigt wurden, die Tochterspezies der Brassica Pflanzen ohne diese Motive. Dieser Widerspruch könnte darauf zurückzuführen sein, dass in der PCR unspezifische Primer genutzt wurden, oder aber die Motive aus B. carinata könnten ein Artefakt aus einer Luft-übertragenen Kontamination sein. Technische Schwierigkeiten in der Durchführung von Southern Blots, mit denen zwischen diesen Möglichkeiten unterschieden werden sollte, haben eine abschließende Antwort verhindert. Nach einer Optimierung der Methode sollte diese aber geeignet sein, diese Frage zu klären.

Urban and peri-urban agricultural production along railway tracks: a case study from the Mumbai Metropolitan Region

Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) contributes to food security, serves as an opportunity for income generation, and provides recreational services to urban citizens. With a population of 21 Million people, of which 60 % live in slums, UPA activities can play a crucial role in supporting people’s livelihoods in Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR). This study was conducted to characterize the railway gardens, determine their role in UPA production, and assess potential risks. It comprises a baseline survey among 38 railway gardeners across MMR characterized by different demographic, socio-economic, migratory, and labour characteristics. Soil, irrigation water, and plant samples were analyzed for nutrients, heavy metals, and microbial load. All the railway gardeners practiced agriculture as a primary source of income and cultivated seasonal vegetables such as lady’s finger (Abelmoschus esculentus L. Moench), spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.), red amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.), and white radish (Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus) which were irrigated with waste water. This irrigation water was loaded with 7–28 mg N l^(−1), 0.3–7 mg P l^(−1), and 8–32 mg K l^(−1), but also contained heavy metals such as lead (0.02–0.06 mg Pb l^(−1)), cadmium (0.03–0.17 mg Cd l^(−1)), mercury (0.001–0.005 mg Hg l^(−1)), and pathogens such as Escherichia coli (1,100 most probable number per 100 ml). Levels of heavy metals exceeded the critical thresholds in surface soils (Cr, Ni, and Sr) and produce (Pb, Cd, and Sr). The railway garden production systems can substantially foster employment and reduce economic deprivation of urban poor particularly slum dwellers and migrant people. However this production system may also cause possible health risks to producers and consumers.

Influence of pre-plant densities of Meloidogyne incognita on growth and root infestation of spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) (Amaranthaceae) – an important dimension towards enhancing crop production

Vegetables represent a main source of micro-nutrients which can improve the health status of malnourished poor in the world. Spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) is a popular leafy vegetable in many countries which is rich with several important micro-nutrients. Thus, consuming Spinach helps to overcome micro-nutrient deficiencies. Pests and pathogens act as major yield constraints in food production. Root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne species, constitute a large group of highly destructive plant pests. Spinach is found to be highly susceptible for these nematode attacks. Though agricultural production has largely benefited from modern technologies and innovations, some important dimensions which can minimize the yield losses have been neglected by most of the growers. Pre-plant or initial nematode density in soil is a crucial biotic factor which is directly responsible for crop losses. Hence, information on preplant nematode densities and the corresponding damage is of vital importance to develop successful control procedures to enhance crop production. In the present study, effect of seven initial densities of M. incognita, i.e., 156, 312, 625, 1250, 2,500, 5,000 and 10,000 infective juveniles (IJs)/plant (equivalent to 1000cm3 soil) on the growth and root infestation on potted spinach plants was determined in a screen house. In order to ensure a high accuracy, root infestation was ascertained by the number of galls formed, the percentage galled-length of feeder roots and galled-feeder roots, and egg production, per plant. Fifty days post-inoculation, shoot length and weight, and root length were suppressed at the lowest IJs density. However, the pathogenic effect was pronounced at the highest density at which 43%, 46% and 45% reduction in shoot length and weight, and root length, respectively, was recorded. The highest reduction in root weight (26%) was detected at the second highest density. The Number of galls and percentage galled-length of feeder roots/per plant showed significant progressive increase across the increasing IJs density with the highest mean value of 432.3 and 54%, respectively. The two shoot growth parameters and root length showed significant inverse relationship with the increasing gall formation. Moreover, the shoot and root length were shown to be mutually dependent on each other. Suppression of shoot growth of spinach greatly affects the grower’s economy. Hence, control measures are essentially needed to ensure a better production of spinach via reducing the pre-plant density below the level of 0.156 IJs/cm3.

A survey of brassica vegetable smallholder farmers in the Gauteng and Limpopo provinces of South Africa

A study was taken to investigate the types of brassica vegetables mostly grown by smallholder farmers in two provinces of South Africa. Thirty-one smallholder vegetable farmers in the Gauteng province and Waterberg district in the Limpopo province were surveyed. In addition, the study also sought to establish the common diseases, the management strategies used and problems encountered by the farmers. Farmers were interviewed using a questionnaire with closed and open–ended questions. The results indicated that the smallholder farmers mostly grew cabbage (93.6%) as their main brassica crop followed by rape (41.2%). Thirty percent of farmers could not identify or name the predominant disease/s encountered in their fields. Major diseases encountered by farmers surveyed were an unknown disease/s (33.3%), black rot (26.7%), Alternaria leaf spot (6.7%) and white rust (6.7%). Smallholder farmers have inadequate technical information available especially relating to crop diseases, their identification and control. Farmers encountered challenges with black rot disease especially on cabbage, rape and kale and the disease was a problem during winter and summer. Generally, the smallholder farmers used crop rotation (74.2%) as a major practice to manage the diseases experienced. They rotated their brassica vegetables with other crops/vegetables like tomatoes, onions, beetroots and maize. Most of the farmers interviewed (61.3%) did not use chemicals to control diseases, whereas 38.7% of them used chemicals. This was mostly because they lacked information and knowledge, high costs associated with use of chemical fungicides and some were shifting towards organic farming. From the study it was noted that there was a need for technical support to improve farmers’ knowledge on disease identification and control within the surveyed areas.