Synthese von Azobenzolderivaten zur Darstellung photoschaltbarer, selbstorganisierter Monolagen

Im Vordergrund dieser Arbeit stehen die Synthesen des Azobenzol-4-trichlorsilans sowie des Bis(4-azobenzol)disulfids, ausgehend von einfachen und kommerziell erhältlichen Verbindungen. Moleküle, aus denen sich diese Verbindungen synthetisieren lassen, sind die Iodderivate des Azobenzols, welche über die Kondensation von Benzolaminen (Anilinen) und Nitrosobenzolen dargestellt wurden, aber auch über die altbewährte Azokupplung. Insgesamt wurden 19 neue Azobenzolderivate, das neue [(4-Aminophenyl)ethinyl]ferrocen und das neue Bis[4-(4'-bromazobenzol)]disulfid synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Außerdem wurden 13 neue Kristallstrukturen erzeugt. Mit den synthetisierten Molekülen wurden Substrat-Adsorbat-Systeme gebildet. Als Substrate wurden oberflächenoxidiertes Silizium und Gold gewählt. Die Präparation dieser sogennanten selbstorganisierten Monolagen (SAMs) bzw. der kovalent gebundenen Monolagen im Falle der Trichlorsilylderivate (CAMs) wurde eingehend studiert. Das Azobenzol wurde als photoschaltbare Einheit gewählt, da es bereits Kern zahlreicher Untersuchungen war und als solcher als guter und zuverlässiger Baustein für reversible photoschaltbare Systeme etabliert ist. Zur Charakterisierung Schichten und zur Untersuchung ihres photoresponsiven Verhaltens sowie sowie zur Untersuchung der Schichtbildung selbst wurden mehrere physikalische Messmethoden angewandt. Die Schichtbildung wurde mit SHG (optische Frequenzverdopplung) verfolgt, die fertigen Schichten wurden mit XPS (Röntgen-Photonen-Spektroskopie) und NEXAFS (Nahkanten-Röntgen-Absorptions-Feinstruktur) untersucht, um Orientierung und Ordnung der Moleküle in der Schicht zu ermitteln. Das Schaltverhalten wurde mit Ellipsometrie und durch Messungen des Wasserkontaktwinkels beobachtet. Durch Variation der Endgruppe des Azobenzols ist es möglich, die Oberflächeneigenschaften einstellen gezielt zu können, wie Hydrophobie, Hydrophilie, Komplexierungsverhalten oder elektrische Schaltbarkeit. Dies gelingt durch Gruppen wie N,N-Dimethylamino-, Methoxy-, Ethoxy-, Octyloxy-, Dodecyloxy-, Benzyloxy-, Methyl-, Trifluormethyl-, Pyridyl-, Phenylethinyl- und Ferrocenyl-Restgruppen, um nur eine Auswahl zu nennen. Einerseits wurde Silizium als Substrat gewählt, da es wegen seiner Verwendung in der Halbleiterindustrie ein nicht uninteressantes Substrat darstell und die Möglichkeiten der kovalenten Anbindung von Trichlorsilanen aber auch Trialkoxysilanen auch gut untersucht ist. Andererseits wurden auch Untersuchungen mit Gold als Substrat angestellt, bei dem Thiole und Disulfide die bevorzugten Ankergruppen bilden. Während sich auf Gold sogenannte SAMs bilden, verleiht die kovalente Siloxanbindung den CAMs auf Silizium eine besondere Stabilität.

Biological Photonic Crystals: Diatoms

The aim of this work was to produce a variety of fluorescent diatom cell wall material as a basis for spectroscopic investigations of the influence of the photonic structure on the emission of an incorporated laser dye. This goal was achieved by the method of in vivo-fluorochromation, in which the fluorescence dyes are incorporated by the diatom cells during cell wall formation. Several fluorescent dyes (mostly rhodamines) known as strong laser dyes, were tested for a possible application within this method. The results of this work show that half of the tested rhodamines can be applied for an in vivo-fluorochromation of diatom cells. For a successful incorporation into the diatom cell wall, a relatively low toxicity to diatom cells is necessary. Replacement of the carbon acid function at the carboxyphenyl ring of the rhodamine by a methyl or ethylester function showed to convert a rhodamine of relatively low toxicity to a rhodamine leading to severe lethal effects within the cells. In contrast to their carbon acid forms, which posses a net neutral charge of the molecule, rhodamine esters exhibit a net positive charge. The enhanced toxicological effects seem to be due to an increased accumulation of positive charged rhodamines within the mitochondria, an increased hydrophobicity due to the attachment of an alkyl substituent, an increased retention time of the dyes within the mitochondria and a therefore stronger negative effect on the mitochondrial membrane bound energy processes of the diatom cell. Therefore rhodamines with a positive net charge deriving from a methyl or ethylester function at the carboxy phenyl ring instead of a carbon acid substituent showed not to be suitable for long-term investigations/ biomineralization studies of diatoms. Investigations performed on diatom species of different orders showed that rhodamine 19, rhodamine B, and rhodamine 101 can presumably be successfully applied for in vivo-fluorochromation to all diatom species. The results obtained here can help to find further laser dyes for an in vivo-fluorochromation of diatom cells and therefore for the production of fluorescent nanostructural elements for a detailed optical investigation of the diatom cell wall. First optical measurements performed on in vivo-fluorochromated cell walls did not give any hints concerning the photonic structure of the diatom cell. Cell wall parts with different nanostructural elements were investigated and by comparison of the obtained fluorescence emission spectra, no special features that might derive from photonic structural effects could be observed. Results concerning the concentration dependent shifts within the emission spectra, as well as the decrease of fluorescence intensity of the stained cell wall structures with increasing dye concentration, depict that several effects occurring by interaction of the molecules within the cell wall can have an impact on the technical application of fluorescent cell walls. It can be assumed that the investigation of the photonic crystal behaviour and the possibility to achieve laser action within the diatom cell wall can be hampered by molecular interactions. The results give hints to prevent such obstacles. Comparison of the recent findings and state of the art of in vivo-fluorochromation of diatom cell wall material, make clear that the here presented results are of importance and can offer a considerable contribution to the development and establishment of new biosilification markers, for diatoms as well as for other biosilifying organisms.

Dye-sensitized solar cells based on perylene derivatives

The oil price rises more and more, and the world energy consumption is projected to expand by 50 percent from 2005 to 2030. Nowadays intensive research is focused on the development of alternative energies. Among them, there are dye-sensitized nanocrystalline solar cells (DSSCs) “the third generation solar cells”. The latter have gained attention during the last decade and are currently subject of intense research in the framework of renewable energies as a low-cost photovoltaic. At present DSSCs with ruthenium based dyes exhibit highest efficiencies (ca 11%). The objective of the present work is to fabricate, characterize and improve the performance of DSSCs based on metal free dyes as sensitizers, especially on perylene derivatives. The work begins by a general introduction to the photovoltaics and dye-sensitized solar cells, such as the operating principles and the characteristics of the DSSCs. Chapter 2 and 3 discuss the state of the art of sensitizers used in DSSCs, present the compounds used as sensitizer in the present work and illustrate practical issues of experimental techniques and device preparation. A comparative study of electrolyte-DSSCs based on P1, P4, P7, P8, P9, and P10 are presented in chapter 4. Experimental results show that the dye structure plays a crucial role in the performance of the devices. The dye based on the spiro-concept (bipolar spiro compound) exhibited a higher efficiency than the non-spiro compounds. The presence of tert-butylpyridine as additive in the electrolyte was found to increase the open circuit voltage and simultaneously decrease the efficiency. The presence of lithium ions in the electrolyte increases both output current and the efficiency. The sensitivity of the dye to cations contained in the electrolyte was investigated in the chapter 5. FT-IR and UV-Vis were used to investigate the in-situ coordination of the cation to the adsorbed dye in the working devices. The open-circuit voltage was found to depend on the number of coordination sites in the dye. P1 with most coordination sites has shown the lowest potential drop, opposite to P7, which is less sensitive to cations in the working cells. A strategy to improve the dye adsorption onto the TiO2 surface, and thus the light harvesting efficiency of the photoanode by UV treatment, is presented in chapter 6. The treatment of the TiO2 film with UV light generates hydroxyl groups and renders the TiO2 surface more and more hydrophilic. The treated TiO2 surface reacts readily with the acid anhydride group of the dye that acts as an anchoring group and improves the dye adsorption. The short-circuit current density and the efficiency of the electrolyte-based dye cells was considerably improved by the UV treatment of the TiO2 film. Solid-state dye-sensitized solar cells (SSDs) based on spiro-MeOTAD (used as hole transport material) are studied in chapter 7. The efficiency of SSDs was globally found to be lower than that of electrolyte-based solar cells. That was due to poor pore filling of the dye-loaded TiO2 film by the spin-coated spiro-MeOTAD and to the significantly slower charge transport in the spiro-MeOTAD compared to the electrolyte redox mediator. However, the presence of the donor moieties in P1 that are structurally similar to spiro-MeOTAD was found to improve the wettability of the P1-loaded TiO2 film. As a consequence the performance of the P1-based solid-state cells is better compared to the cells based on non-spiro compounds.