Studies on genetic polymorphism in Santalum Album L.

Loss of natural sandal populations due to illicit felling, forest encroachment and spike disease have an adverse effect on genetic diversity of the species. To initiate any genetic improvement programme in sandal, a precise understanding of the population genetic diversity structure is essential. The concern over the loss of genetic variability in sandal is particularly critical, as there is hardly any information regarding the diversity status of the natural populations. Identifying fast growing, disease resistant, oil rich sandal trees through breeding and their mass multiplication for afforestation are the best method for ensuring sustainable supply of superior sandalwood. The healthy sandal trees existing in heavily spike diseased area can be used as a promising starting point for any such breeding programme (Venkatesh, 1978). So far, no genetic information is available regarding the resistant nature of spike disease evaded trees left in heavily infected patches. The high rate of depletion of the superior trees in South Indian sandal reserves due to illegal felling and spike disease has necessitated an urgent need for conservation of the surviving trees.Widespread occurrence of spike disease in Marayoor forest reserve was reported in 1981 (Ghosh and Balasundaran, 1995). Because of the high density of trees and varying intensity of spike disease, Marayoor sandal population was found to be ideal for experimental studies in sandal (Ghosh et al., 1985). Fifteen trees of reserve 51 of Marayoor range had been selected as candidate plus trees for growth and spike disease evasion . These trees have been selected for mass multiplication through tissue culture technique.

Behavior of geopolymer concrete exposed to elevated temperatures

The research in the area of geopolymer is gaining momentum during the past 20 years. Studies confirm that geopolymer concrete has good compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, modulus of elasticity and durability. These properties are comparable with OPC concrete.There are many occasions where concrete is exposed to elevated temperatures like fire exposure from thermal processor, exposure from furnaces, nuclear exposure, etc.. In such cases, understanding of the behaviour of concrete and structural members exposed to elevated temperatures is vital. Even though many research reports are available about the behaviour of OPC concrete at elevated temperatures, there is limited information available about the behaviour of geopolymer concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures. A preliminary study was carried out for the selection of a mix proportion. The important variable considered in the present study include alkali/fly ash ratio, percentage of total aggregate content, fine aggregate to total aggregate ratio, molarity of sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide ratio, curing temperature and curing period. Influence of different variables on engineering properties of geopolymer concrete was investigated. The study on interface shear strength of reinforced and unreinforced geopolymer concrete as well as OPC concrete was also carried out. Engineering properties of fly ash based geopolymer concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures (ambient to 800 °C) were studied and the corresponding results were compared with those of conventional concrete. Scanning Electron Microscope analysis, Fourier Transform Infrared analysis, X-ray powder Diffractometer analysis and Thermogravimetric analysis of geopolymer mortar or paste at ambient temperature and after exposure to elevated temperature were also carried out in the present research work. Experimental study was conducted on geopolymer concrete beams after exposure to elevated temperatures (ambient to 800 °C). Load deflection characteristics, ductility and moment-curvature behaviour of the geopolymer concrete beams after exposure to elevated temperatures were investigated. Based on the present study, major conclusions derived could be summarized as follows. There is a definite proportion for various ingredients to achieve maximum strength properties. Geopolymer concrete with total aggregate content of 70% by volume, ratio of fine aggregate to total aggregate of 0.35, NaOH molarity 10, Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio of 2.5 and alkali to fly ash ratio of 0.55 gave maximum compressive strength in the present study. An early strength development in geopolymer concrete could be achieved by the proper selection of curing temperature and the period of curing. With 24 hours of curing at 100 °C, 96.4% of the 28th day cube compressive strength could be achieved in 7 days in the present study. The interface shear strength of geopolymer concrete is lower to that of OPC concrete. Compared to OPC concrete, a reduction in the interface shear strength by 33% and 29% was observed for unreinforced and reinforced geopolymer specimens respectively. The interface shear strength of geopolymer concrete is lower than ordinary Portland cement concrete. The interface shear strength of geopolymer concrete can be approximately estimated as 50% of the value obtained based on the available equations for the calculation of interface shear strength of ordinary portland cement concrete (method used in Mattock and ACI). Fly ash based geopolymer concrete undergoes a high rate of strength loss (compressive strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity) during its early heating period (up to 200 °C) compared to OPC concrete. At a temperature exposure beyond 600 °C, the unreacted crystalline materials in geopolymer concrete get transformed into amorphous state and undergo polymerization. As a result, there is no further strength loss (compressive strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity) in geopolymer concrete, whereas, OPC concrete continues to lose its strength properties at a faster rate beyond a temperature exposure of 600 °C. At present no equation is available to predict the strength properties of geopolymer concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures. Based on the study carried out, new equations have been proposed to predict the residual strengths (cube compressive strength, split tensile strength and modulus of elasticity) of geopolymer concrete after exposure to elevated temperatures (upto 800 °C). These equations could be used for material modelling until better refined equations are available. Compared to OPC concrete, geopolymer concrete shows better resistance against surface cracking when exposed to elevated temperatures. In the present study, while OPC concrete started developing cracks at 400 °C, geopolymer concrete did not show any visible cracks up to 600 °C and developed only minor cracks at an exposure temperatureof 800 °C. Geopolymer concrete beams develop crack at an early load stages if they are exposed to elevated temperatures. Even though the material strength of the geopolymer concrete does not decrease beyond 600 °C, the flexural strength of corresponding beam reduces rapidly after 600 °C temperature exposure, primarily due to the rapid loss of the strength of steel. With increase in temperature, the curvature at yield point of geopolymer concrete beam increases and thereby the ductility reduces. In the present study, compared to the ductility at ambient temperature, the ductility of geopolymer concrete beams reduces by 63.8% at 800 °C temperature exposure. Appropriate equations have been proposed to predict the service load crack width of geopolymer concrete beam exposed to elevated temperatures. These equations could be used to limit the service load on geopolymer concrete beams exposed to elevated temperatures (up to 800 °C) for a predefined crack width (between 0.1mm and 0.3 mm) or vice versa. The moment-curvature relationship of geopolymer concrete beams at ambient temperature is similar to that of RCC beams and this could be predicted using strain compatibility approach Once exposed to an elevated temperature, the strain compatibility approach underestimates the curvature of geopolymer concrete beams between the first cracking and yielding point.

A fibre optic evanescent wave sensor for monitoring the rate of pulsed laser deposition of metal thin films

A novel sensing technique for the in situ monitoring of the rate of pulsed laser deposition (PLD) of metal thin films has been developed. This optical fibre based sensor works on the principle of the evanescent wave penetration of waveguide modes into the uncladded portion of a multimode fibre. The utility of this optical fibre sensor is demonstrated in the case of PLD of silver thin films obtained by a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser which is used to irradiate a silver target at the required conditions for the preparation of thin films. This paper describes the performance and characteristics of the sensor and shows how the device can be used as an effective tool for the monitoring of the deposition rate of silver thin films. The fibre optic sensor is very simple, inexpensive and highly sensitive compared with existing techniques for thin film deposition rate measurements

A fibre optic evanescent wave sensor for monitoring the rate of pulsed laser deposition of metal thin films

A novel sensing technique for the in situ monitoring of the rate of pulsed laser deposition (PLD) of metal thin films has been developed. This optical fibre based sensor works on the principle of the evanescent wave penetration of waveguide modes into the uncladded portion of a multimode fibre. The utility of this optical fibre sensor is demonstrated in the case of PLD of silver thin films obtained by a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser which is used to irradiate a silver target at the required conditions for the preparation of thin films. This paper describes the performance and characteristics of the sensor and shows how the device can be used as an effective tool for the monitoring of the deposition rate of silver thin films. The fibre optic sensor is very simple, inexpensive and highly sensitive compared with existing techniques for thin film deposition rate measurements.

An optical fibre based evanescent wave sensor to monitor the deposition rate of thin films

A novel fibre optic sensor for the in situ measurement of the rate of deposition of thin films has been developed. Evanescent wave in the uncladded portion of a multimode fibre is utilised for this sensor development. In the present paper we demonstrate how this sensor is useful for the monitoring of the deposition rate of polypyrrole thin films, deposited by an AC plasma polymerisation method. This technique is simple, accurate and highly sensitive compared with existing techniques.

Structural, electrical and electrochemical characterization of high frequency magnetron sputtered spinel oxide cathode films for lithium ion battery applications

The main challenges in the deposition of cathode materials in thin film form are the reproduction of stoichiometry close to the bulk material and attaining higher rates of deposition and excellent crystallinity at comparatively lower annealing temperatures. There are several methods available to develop stoichiometric thin film cathode materials including pulsed laser deposition; plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, electron beam evaporation, electrostatic spray deposition and RF magnetron sputtering. Among them the most versatile method is the sputtering technique, owing to its suitability for micro-fabricating the thin film batteries directly on chips in any shape or size, and on flexible substrates, with good capacity and cycle life. The main drawback of the conventional sputtering technique using RF frequency of 13.56MHz is its lower rate of deposition, compared to other deposition techniques A typical cathode layer for a thin film battery requires a thickness around one micron. To deposit such thick layers using convention RF sputtering, longer time of deposition is required, since the deposition rate is very low, which is typically 10-20 Å/min. This makes the conventional RF sputtering technique a less viable option for mass production in an economical way. There exists a host of theoretical and experimental evidences and results that higher excitation frequency can be efficiently used to deposit good quality films at higher deposition rates with glow discharge plasma. The effect of frequencies higher than the conventional one (13.56MHz) on the RF magnetron sputtering process has not been subjected to detailed investigations. Attempts have been made in the present work, to sputter deposit spinel oxide cathode films, using high frequency RF excitation source. Most importantly, the major challenge faced by the thin film battery based on the LiMn2O4 cathode material is the poor capacity retention during charge discharge cycling. The major causes for the capacity fading reported in LiMn2O4cathode materials are due to, Jahn-Teller distortion, Mn2+ dissolution into the electrolyte and oxygen loss in cathode material during cycling. The work discussed in this thesis is an attempt on overcoming the above said challenges and developing a high capacity thin film cathode material.

Microwave Plasma Assisted ALD Development for the Deposition of Gate Oxides & ALD of High-k Dielectrics

The semiconductor industry's urge towards faster, smaller and cheaper integrated circuits has lead the industry to smaller node devices. The integrated circuits that are now under volume production belong to 22 nm and 14 nm technology nodes. In 2007 the 45 nm technology came with the revolutionary high- /metal gate structure. 22 nm technology utilizes fully depleted tri-gate transistor structure. The 14 nm technology is a continuation of the 22 nm technology. Intel is using second generation tri-gate technology in 14 nm devices. After 14 nm, the semiconductor industry is expected to continue the scaling with 10 nm devices followed by 7 nm. Recently, IBM has announced successful production of 7 nm node test chips. This is the fashion how nanoelectronics industry is proceeding with its scaling trend. For the present node of technologies selective deposition and selective removal of the materials are required. Atomic layer deposition and the atomic layer etching are the respective techniques used for selective deposition and selective removal. Atomic layer deposition still remains as a futuristic manufacturing approach that deposits materials and lms in exact places. In addition to the nano/microelectronics industry, ALD is also widening its application areas and acceptance. The usage of ALD equipments in industry exhibits a diversi cation trend. With this trend, large area, batch processing, particle ALD and plasma enhanced like ALD equipments are becoming prominent in industrial applications. In this work, the development of an atomic layer deposition tool with microwave plasma capability is described, which is a ordable even for lightly funded research labs.