An investigation into the effects of homopteran honeydew sugars versus floral nectar sugars on black fly longevity, flight performance and digestion /

Floral nectar is thought to be the primary carbohydrate source for most dipteran species. However, it has been shown that black flies (Burgin & Hunter 1997 a,b,c), mosquitoes (Foster 1995; Burkett et al. 1999; Russell & Hunter 2002), deer flies (Magnarelli & Burger 1984; Janzen & Hunter 1998; Ossowski & Hunter 2000), horse flies (Schutz & Gaugler 1989; Hunter & Ossowski 1999) and sand flies (MacVicker et al. 1990; Wallbanks et al. 1990; Cameron et al. 1992, 1995; Schlein & Jacobson 1994, 1999; Hamilton & EI Naiem 2000) feed on homopteran honeydew as well as floral nectar. Prior to 1997 floral nectar was thought to be the main source of carbohydrates for black flies. However, Burgin & Hunter (1 997a) demonstrated that up to 35% of black flies had recently consumed meals of homo pte ran honeydew. This information has necessitated a re-assessment of many life history aspects of black flies. Attempts are being made to examine the effects of nectar versus honeydew on black fly fecundity and parasite transmission (Hazzard 2003). Recently, Stanfield and Hunter (unpublished data) have shown that in female black flies, honeydew sugars produce flights of longer distance and duration than do nectar sugars. This thesis examines two aspects of black fly biology as it relates to sugar meal consumption. First, the effects of honeydew and nectar on black fly longevity are examined. Second, the proximate causation behind longer flight performances in honeydew-fed flies will be examined. The comparison between these two sources is important because nectar is composed of mainly simple sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) whereas honeydew is composed of both simple and complex sugars (including trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides ).

The Influence of Male Diet on Life History Traits of Female Mosquitoes

In the field, mosquitoes characteristically feed on sugars soon after emergence and intermittently during their adult lives. Sugar meals are commonly derived from plant nectar and homopteran honeydew, and without them, adults can only survive for a few days on larval reserves. In addition to sugar, females of most species rely on blood for the initiation and maintenance of egg development; thus their reproductive success depends to some extent on the availability of blood hosts. Males, on the other hand, feed exclusively on sugars. Consequently, their sexual maturation and reproductive success is largely dependent upon access to sugar sources. Plant nectar and homopteran honeydew are the two main sugar sources utilized by mosquitoes in the wild. Previous laboratory studies had shown that differences between nectar sources can affect the survivorship and biting frequency of disease vectoring mosquitoes. However, little is known on how sugar composition influence the reproductive processes in male mosquitoes. Male mosquitoes transfer accessory gland proteins and other hormones to their mates along with sperm during mating. In the female, these seminal fluid constituents exert their influence on reproductive genes that control ovulation and vitellogenesis. The present study tests the hypothesis that the mates of males consuming different sugar meals will exhibit varying levels of induction of vitellogenin (a gene which regulates the expression of egg yolk precursor proteins). Real-time quantitative RT-PCR was used to investigate how each sugar meal indirectly influences vitellogenin mRNA abundance in female Anopheles stephensi following mating. Results indicate that mates of nectar-fed males exhibit 2-fold greater change in vitellogenin expression than the mates of honeydew-fed males. However, this response did not occur in non-blood fed controls. These findings suggest that the stimulatory effect of mating on vitellogenesis in blood meal-reliant (i.e. anautogenous) mosquitoes may only be synergistic in nature. The present study also sought to compare the potential fitness costs of mating incurred by females that do not necessarily require a blood meal to initiate a reproductive cycle (i.e., exhibit autogeny). Females of the facultatively autogenous mosquito, Culex molestus were allowed to mate with males sustained on either nectar or honedyew. Mean lifetime fecundity and survivorship of females under the two different mating regimes were then recorded. Additionally, one-dimensional gel electrophoresis was used to verify the transfer of male accessory gland proteins to the sperm storage organs of females during mating.While there was no significant difference in survival between the test treatments, the mates of nectar-fed males produced 11% more eggs on average than mates of honeydew-fed males. However, additional data are needed to justify the extrapolation of these findings to natural settings. These findings prompt further investigation as the differences caused by diet variation in males may be reflected across other life history traits such as mating frequency and insemination capacity.

Charts and graphs of cross sections from Brown’s ditch culvert to the main drain

Charts and graphs of cross sections from Brown’s ditch culvert to the main drain, cross sections from the feeder on the road allowance between lots 26 and 27 in the 5th concession of Humberstone, Cross sections of the main drain from Lyons Creek culvert to the road allowance between lots 7 and 8 in Wainfleet and cross selections of the old ditch on the west side of the road allowance between lots 17 and 18 in the 3rd concession in Wainfleet (8 pages, hand drawn), n.d.

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Andrew Mains

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Andrew Mains, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.6, Jan. and Feb., 1856.

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.7, Jan. and Feb. and Mar., 1856.

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Andrew Mains

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Andrew Mains, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.7, Mar., 1856.

Estimate for Mr. A. Cook on main drain of marsh lands sent to S.D. Woodruff by Fred Holmes

Estimate for Mr. A. Cook on main drain of marsh lands sent to S.D. Woodruff by Fred Holmes, Mar. 28, 1856.

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.8, April, 1856.

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.9, May, 1856.

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.10, June, 1856.

Estimate for Cook and Lauder on the marsh lands main drain

Estimate for Cook and Lauder on the marsh lands main drain, n.d.

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook, signed by S.D. Woodruff

County of Welland estimate of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.11, July, 1856.

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Andrew Mains

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Andrew Mains, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.8, July, 1856.

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Andrew Mains

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Andrew Mains, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.9, Aug., 1856.

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook

County of Welland estimate (copy) of work done on the main drain of the marsh lands by Alexander Cook, signed by S.D. Woodruff. Estimate no.12, Aug., 1856.