The relationship between self-serving cognitive distortions and bullying behaviours among elementary school children /

The purpose ofthe study was to examine the relationshq) between self-serving cognitive distortions and involvement in bullying behaviours. While relationships were e}q)k)red for both bullies and victims, the bully represented the main focus ofthis research. The participants ofthis study were 206 elementary school children in grades 5, 6, 7, and 8 from a school board in South Western Ontario. Participants conq>leted a 2- part self-report questionnaire within a 1-week time period. Part I aimed to measure self-serving cognitive distortions, while Part II was designed to assess selfreports of bullying behaviours. Analyses revealed that a significant direct relationship existed between children's self-serving cognitive distortions and bullying others. More specifically, children's self-serving cognitive distortions were moderately correlated with bullying others (r = .50, p< 0.01). This finding was consistent for both male and female participants. In addition, significant moderate correlations also existed between each ofthe 9 subscales ofself-serving cognitive distortions and bullying others. In regard to the relationship between children's self-serving cognitive distortions and victimization, a low significant direct relationshq) was found (r = .22 p<0.01). This finding was consistent for both male and female participants. The results ofthis study are discussed in terms oftheir theoretical, as well as applied implications.

Moral identity, youth engagement, and discussions with parents and peers /

The strength of adolescents' moral identity was examined in relation to their sense of social responsibility, frequency of community engagement, and interactions with parents and friends. Participants were 191 applicants to national youth conferences, ranging in age from 14-19, who completed a 40-minute survey. 76% of the participants were female. Social responsibility, community engagement, and discussion with parents and friends were measured using self-report questionnaires. Participants also reported on the importance of various values to themselves, their parents, and their friends, which were used to create an index of the degree of disagreement between the youth and their parents and friends. In addition, participants provided self-descriptions, which were used to measure moral identity with both a coding scheme and a ratings measure. Moral identity as measured by coding was not related to social responsibility, community engagement, or any other study variables, and thus did not appear to be a valid measure of moral identity. However, moral identity as measured by ratings was related to both social responsibility and community engagement, and thus appeared to be a valid measure. Neither disagreement nor discussion with friends was related to moral identity. However, disagreement with parents was positively related to moral identity ratings, and for girls only was negatively related to social responsibility. Furthermore, discussion with parents was positively related to moral identity for boys only. The hypothesis predicting a mediational model was not supported. Results were discussed in terms of theoretical positions on the role of parents and friends in children's moral development and suggestions for ftiture research were made.

Psychopathy and self-monitoring : additive and interactive effects on self-presentation tactics /

The purpose of this study was to determine the relative contributions of psychopathy and self-monitoring to the prediction of self-presentation tactics (behaviours that individuals use to manipulate their self-image). Psychopathy is composed of two main factors: Factor 1, which includes manipulativeness and shallow affect, and Factor 2, which includes irresponsibility and anti-social behaviours. Self-monitoring is a personality trait that distinguishes between those who adapt their behaviour to fit different social situations (high self-monitors) and those who behave as they feel regardless of social expectations (low selfmonitors). It was hypothesized that self-monitoring would moderate the relationship between psychopathy and self-presentation tactics. One hundred and forty-nine university students completed the Self-Monitoring Scale (Snyder, 1974), the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale - Version III (Paulhus et aI., in press), the Self-Presentation Tactics scale (Lee, S., et aI., 1999), the HEXACO-PI (a measure ofthe six major factors of personality; Lee, K., & Ashton, 2004), and six scenarios that were created as a supplementary measure of the selfpresentation tactics. Results of the hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that self-monitoring did moderate the relationship between psychopathy and three of the selfpresentation tactics: apologies, disclaimers, and exemplification. Further, significant interactions were observed between Factor 1 and self-monitoring on apologies and the defensive tactics subscale, between Factor 2 and self-monitoring on self-handicapping, and between Factor 1 and Factor 2 on exemplification. Contrary to expectations, the main effect of self-monitoring was significant for the prediction of nine tactics, while psychopathy was significant for the prediction of seven tactics. This indicates that the role of these two personality traits in the explanation of self-presentation tactics tends to be additive in nature rather than interactive. In addition. Factor 2 alone did not account for a significant amount of variance in any of the tactics, while Factor 1 significantly predicted nine tactics. Results are discussed with regard to implications and possible directions for future research.

Aerobic exercise in adolescence : self-efficacy and stage of change

The purpose of this cross-sectional exploratory study was to examine the relationships among self-efficacy, stage of change, and exercise behaviour in a sample of younger (Grade 9) and older (Grade 12) adolescents. A secondary objective of this study was to apply the transtheoretical model of Stage of Change, as a measure of intention to change, in order to discover the applicability of the model to an adolescent cohort in relation to exercise behaviour. This five-stage model is a self-report measure of an individual's readiness to adopt a new behaviour (e.g., regular exercise). The transtheoretical model incorporates Bandura's self-efficacy factor, which is purported to be a predictive measure of exercise behaviour and a covariant of stage. Exercise behaviour was measured with the Physical Activity Scale, and the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale (URleA) was used to measure the stage of change and self-efficacy variables. The results of this study indicated significant differences between younger and older adolescents, and between males and females in their exercise behaviour. No significant differences were found for grade and gender on stage of change as measured by either a single-item question or a continuous measure of stage. Although grade and gender subgroups were not significantly different in their self-efficacy, significant interaction was found in the grade*gender variable.

Children's Bullying Experiences and Self-Worth Perceptions in a Private School

This study explored children's bullying experiences (as bully, victim, and bystander) and their self-worth perceptions in a private school in Ontario, Canada. Forty students from 12 different countries participated in a mixed methodology (both quantitative and qualitative) research design using a self-report questionnaire. Students reported involvement in bullying as a bully, victim, and bystander. The overall results reveal a pattern across the three roles where the degree of bullying observed as a bystander is the highest (57%) followed by the experiences as a victim (29%) and that performed as bully (21%). The bystanders reported direct bullying being witnessed, bullies reported indirect bullying interventions as being used, and victims of bullying reported indirect bullying being the most common type of bullying they experienced. Decreased feeling of self-worth is reported in the qualitative research data in regards to bullying. Boarding students reported issues regarding personal safety, need for social relationships, self-worth, and unacceptability of bullying. Implications for practice for the private school are discussed, focusing on the outcome of this study.

Nonsuicidal Self-Injury and Suicidal Behavior: A Latent Class Analysis among Young Adults

Although there is a general consensus among researchers that engagement in nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) is associated with increased risk for suicidal behavior, little attention has been given to whether suicidal risk varies among individuals engaging in NSSI. To identify individuals with a history of NSSI who are most at risk for suicidal behavior, we examined individual variability in both NSSI and suicidal behavior among a sample of young adults with a history of NSSI (N = 439, Mage = 19.1). Participants completed self-report measures assessing NSSI, suicidal behavior, and psychosocial adjustment (e.g., depressive symptoms, daily hassles). We conducted a latent class analysis using several characteristics of NSSI and suicidal behaviors as class indicators. Three subgroups of individuals were identified: 1) an infrequent NSSI/not high risk for suicidal behavior group, 2) a frequent NSSI/not high risk for suicidal behavior group, and 3) a frequent NSSI/high risk for suicidal behavior group. Follow-up analyses indicated that individuals in the ‘frequent NSSI/high risk for suicidal behavior’ group met the clinical-cut off score for high suicidal risk and reported significantly greater levels of suicidal ideation, attempts, and risk for future suicidal behavior as compared to the other two classes. Thus, this study is the first to identity variability in suicidal risk among individuals engaging in frequent and multiple methods of NSSI. Class 3 was also differentiated by higher levels of psychosocial impairment relative to the other two classes, as well as a comparison group of non-injuring young adults. Results underscore the importance of assessing individual differences in NSSI characteristics, as well as psychosocial impairment, when assessing risk for suicidal behavior.

The role of motivational systems in community service involvement : initiating and sustaining factors and quality of experience /

Community service participation can have a positive impact on development, especially for youth. Although researchers have found positive outcomes, there has been a notable decline in youth participation over the past few years (Statistics Canada, 2000). Given the positive outcomes and current decline, it has been argued that youth should be encouraged to get involved in service activities. In the present study, quantitative and qualitative data were collected to determine factors that would help youth to initiate and sustain service, along with examining the quality of their experience. Eighty-two university undergraduate students (23 men), ranging in age from 17-20 years completed a 60-minute self-report questionnaire. Initiating and sustaining factors, motivational systems (similar to approach and avoidance dimensions), activity dimensions {Structure, Supportive Social Environment), quality of experience {Positive, Stress-Challenge), and future intention to participate in community service were measured. Eight participants also completed a 20-minute telephone interview to complement and expand on the quantitative data collected. Some initiating and sustaining factors were specific to individuals higher on the avoidance dimension, while others were relevant to those higher on the approach dimension. Several factors also were important to individuals regardless of their motivational system orientation. Positive quality of experience was related positively to experiencing a supportive social environment. In addition, women rated their community service as more positive than did men. A predicted interaction between the avoidance dimension and Structure in predicting positive quality of experience was not supported; however, positive quality of experience was predicted by the interaction of the approach dimension and Structure. A tested interaction between the avoidance dimension and Supportive Social Environment in predicting positive quality of experience was not supported. Similarly, a predicted interaction between the approach dimension and Supportive Social Environment in predicting positive experience quality was not supported. However, Supportive Social Environment was positively related to positive quality of experience. No support was found for a mediational role for positive quality of experience or stress-challenge quality of experience in exploring the relation between motivational orientation and fiiture intention to engage in service activities. The results of this study suggest that participating in a service environment that is supportive and provides the opportunity for social interactions with others would promote positive quality of experience and help youth sustain involvement. Thus, to help youth have positive experiences and to remain active in service, it is important for service agencies to promote these types of environments. In addition, some initiating and sustaining factors were specific to youth higher on the avoidance dimension and some were relevant to youth higher on the approach dimension. Therefore, service agencies may need to consider using different recruitment and retention strategies, depending on the type of youth they wish to recruit.

An investigation of the emotion assumptions of just-world theory /

The purpose ofthis study was to investigate the emotion assumptions underlying just-world theory. This theory proposes that people have a need to believe in a just world - a world where people get what they deserve. The first emotion assumption is that people, therefore, find injustices (Le., undeserved outcomes) threatening and thus emotionally arousing. Second, it is this arousal that is assumed to drive subsequent strategies for maintaining the belief in a just world. One strategy an individual may use to maintain this belief is derogating victims of injustice, or seeing their character in a more negative light. To test these two assumptions, 102 participants viewed a video depicting either a victim who presumably presented a high threat to people's belief in ajust world (she was innocent and, therefore, undeserving of her fate) or low threat (she was not innocent and, therefore, more deserving of her fate) while their heart rate and EDA was measured. Half of the participants were then given the opportunity to help the victim whereas the other half were not given this opportunity. The manipulations were followed by both explicit and indirect measures of evaluations ofthe victim as well as self-report measures of affect experienced while watching the victim video, and an individual difference scale assessing the strength of participants' just-world beliefs (as well as other measures that were part ofa larger study). Results indicated that participants did report feeling more threatened by the innocent victim. Although there was some evidence of victim derogation on the implicit measure of victim evaluation, there was no evidence that emotional arousal drove the negative evaluations of the victim who could not be helped. Some interaction effects with individual differences in just-world beliefs did occur, but these were not entirely consistent with the rationale behind the individual difference scales. These results provide only weak support for the first emotion assumption ofjust-world theory. Implications of these findings as well as limitations of the study and future directions concerning just-world theory are discussed.

Research in the clinical setting : a qualitative study of the value of play research in the continuing education of occupational therapists.

Occupational therapists have always recognized playas an important part of a child's life. However, until recently play has been viewed as a medium for reaching treatment goals, rather than as an activity that is valuable in and of itself. If occupational therapists think of playas the primary activity or occupation of childhood, then play should be a very important area of focus for paediatric clinicians. In order to assist children to become as independent as possible with play and to have fulfilling play experiences the occupational therapist needs to have a clear understanding of how to assess, set goals which lead towards competence in play, and promote play. Recent play literature has placed importance on play behaviours and looking at the relationship between the child and both the human and nonhuman environment. Believing that play and playfulness can and should be promoted, for children with physical disabilities, requires that therapists learn new assessment and intervention strategies. A new assessment tool, The Test of Playfulness, was developed by Bundy in 1994. It addressed play behaviours and environmental influences. The author, a co-investigator and eight occupational therapists were involved in a playfulness study using this test to compare the playfulness of children with physical disabilities with their able-bodied peers. After the study was completed the author questioned whether or not involvement in the playfulness study was enough of a change agent to bring about transformative learning in order to further the eight occupational therapists' education about play.This study investigated changes in either the therapists' thinking about play or their behaviour in their clinical practice. The study also examined the participants' retention of knowledge about the Test of Playfulness. The eight therapists who had been involved in the playfulness study (participants) were matched with eight therapists who had not been involved (nonparticipants). The therapists were interviewed 9 to 12 months after completion of the playfulness study. They were asked to describe various scenarios of play and open ended prompts were used to elicit the therapists' perceptions of play, good play, the role or value of play, environmental and gender influences on play, play assessment and intervention, and play research, for children with and without disabilities. The participants were also prompted to discuss their experience with the playfulness study. A self-report questionnaire was also completed at the end of the interview. The results of the study demonstrated that: (a) the play research project was a good format for continuing the participants' education about play; (b) their thinking had changed about play; (c) according to self report, they had used this new knowledge in their clinical practice; and (d) the participants remembered the items on the Test of Playfulness and could use them in describing various aspects of play. This study found that participating in a play research project had been an effective method of professional development. It also highlighted the need for increased awareness of the recent literature on play and the developing role of the occupational therapist in the assessment and intervention of play.

Underemployment and depressive affect : the moderating influence of coping styles /

This study tested a model which predicted the relationship between underemployment and depressive affect as moderated by coping styles. A randomly selected community sample of 574 young adults completed a self-report employment status measure, the Underemployment Scale, the Center for Epidemiological Study Depression Scale, and the Coping^Stralegy Indicator. The interaction model was supported for men only. Results indicated that significant interactions between Perceived Job Requirements Underemployment by avoidance copings and Subjective Underemployment by avoidance coping predicted depressive affect for men. Further, the same results were found even after controlling for prior depressive affect. UsingJhe^ selfreport employment status measure revealed significant group differences between unemployed and underemployed men. Underemployed men who utilized more support seeking coping strategies reported higher depressive affect than unemployed men. The interaction model was not supported for women even though women have consistently reported higher depressive affect rates. These results have implications for underemployment and depressive affect research and practical implications for assisting men who feel subjectively underemployed and need to find an appropriate strategy to cope with the situation.

Stress, social support, and health risk behaviours as mediators of the forgiveness-health relation /

The mediating roles of stress, social support, and health risk behaviours in the relationships between dispositional forgiveness and mental and physical health were examined. Participants were 748 undergraduate students (554 women, 194 men) entering their first year of studies at Brock University. Participants, ranging in age from 17 to 25 years, completed the Brock University First Year Health Study and were provided monetary compensation. Dispositional forgiveness, stress, social support, health risk behaviours, mental health, and physical health were measured using self-report methods. The data were analyzed separately for women and men because there were significant mean differences on many of the study'S variables. Analyses revealed that the mediated relationships between dispositional forgiveness and health were generally stronger for women than men. Stress was the most robust mediator of the forgiveness-health relation for both women and men. The only health risk behaviour that mediated the forgivenesshealth relation was physical fitness and this result was found for women only. Social support mediated several of the relationships between forgiveness and health but not others. Results were discussed with reference to the literature on forgiveness and health. Several directions for future research were offered, such as conducting longitudinal research designs to assess the direction of causality better, investigating moderator variables of the forgiveness-health relation, and building models, which incorporate multiple mediators using structural equation modelling techniques.

Exploring exploration : career identity development and temperment /

Career identity exploration is a central component of the lives of undergraduate university students. Although students are encouraged to explore, it is unclear whether different methods of exploration are better suited for certain individuals. In the present study, quantitative data were collected to examine the relationship between shyness and various methods of exploration. Two hundred fifty-seven university undergraduate students (29 male), ranging in age from 17-25 years completed a 60-minute self-report questionnaire. Shyness, identity, identity distress, subjective dimensions of exploration (satisfaction with exploration, reasons for not exploring, helpfulness of exploration methods), foci of exploration (non-social, social, self, and environmental), approaches to exploration (breadth, depth), and moderating variables (social support, sociability) were measured. Shyness was positively correlated with moratorium (high exploration, low commitment) and uncorrelated with the other identity statuses. Shyness was also positively correlated with identity distress, and a predicted interaction between shyness and identity diffusion predicting career identity distress was supported. Shyness was negatively correlated with satisfaction with amount of exploration engaged in to-date. In addition, shyness was correlated with the likelihood of selecting too stressful and too anxiety provoking as reasons for engaging in less exploration than one would like. Expected relationships between shyness and beliefs about, and engagement in, various methods of exploration were largely non-significant. Exceptions to this were the negative correlations between shyness and engagement in social exploration, and beliefs about the helpfulness of social self-exploration, both of which were significant at a trend level. A predicted interaction between shyness and social support predicting total social exploration was supported, showing that high social support buffers the negative relationship between shyness and exploration; such a moderating relationship did not exist, however, between sociability, shyness and social exploration. Results suggest that although shy university students are engaged in career exploration, they are experiencing feelings of distress and dissatisfaction with their career identity exploration and development. Thus, to help shy students become successfiil in their exploration, it is important for counsellors, family members, and peers to be aware of the feelings the individuals are experiencing and help them reduce the anxiety and stress associated with the exploration process. One promising method, supported by the results in this study, is by encouraging shy individuals to explore with social support.

The dual role of students with behavioural problems: an analysis of their experiences as bullies and victims /

The present study examined the bullying experiences of a group of students, age 10-14 years, identified as having behaviour problems. A total often students participated in a series of mixed methodology activities, including self-report questionnaires, story telling exercises, and interview style joumaling. The main research questions were related to the prevalence of bully/victims and the type of bullying experiences in this population. Questionnaires gathered information about their involvement in bullying, as well as about psychological risk factors including normative beliefs about antisocial acts, impulsivity, problem solving, and coping strategies. Journal questions expanded on these themes and allowed students to explain their personal experiences as bullies and victims as well as provide suggestions for intervention. The overall results indicated that all of the ten students in this sample have participated in bullying as both a bully and a victim. This high prevalence of bully/victim involvement in students from behavioural classrooms is in sharp contrast with the general population where the prevalence is about 33%. In addition, a common thread was found that indicated that these students who participated in this study demonstrate characteristics of emotionally dysregulated reactive bullies. Theoretical implication and educational practices are discussed.

The social consequences of mild head injury and executive dysfunction /

Mild head injury (MHI) is a serious cause of neurological impairment as is evident by the substantial percentage (15%) of individuals who remain symptomatic at least 1-year following "mild" head trauma. However, there is a paucity of research investigating the social consequences following a MHI. The first objective of this study was to examine whether measures of executive functioning were predictive of specific forms of antisocial behaviour, such as reactive aggression, impulsive antisocial behaviour, behavioural disinhibition, and deficits in social awareness after controlling for the variance accounted for by sex differences. The second objective was to investigate whether a history of MHI was predictive of these same social consequences after controlling for both sex differences and executive functioning. Ninety university students participated in neuropsychological testing and filled out self-report questionnaires. Fifty-two percent of the sample self-reported experiencing a MHI. As expected, men were more reactively aggressive and antisocial than women. Furthermore, executive dysfunction predicted reactive aggression and impulsive antisocial behaviour after controlling for sex differences. Finally, as expected, MHI status predicted reactive aggression, impulsive antisocial behaviour, and behavioural disinhibition after controlling for sex and executive fimctioning. MHI status and executive functioning did not predict social awareness or sensitivity to reward or punishment. These results suggest that incurring a MHI has serious social consequences that mirror the neurobehavioural profile following severe cases of brain injury. Therefore, the social sequelae after MHI imply a continuum of behavioural deficits between MHI and more severe forms of brain injury.

Prevalence of overweight and obesity in children from urban and rural Niagara

Purpose: The influence of environment in the development of overweight and obesity is an ongoing concern. This investigation examined the influence of urbanization on the rates of childhood overweight and obesity. Method: 2167 (1090M, 1077F) grade four children from 75 schools in Ontario's Niagara Region were sampled. A sophisticated algorithm overlaying electoral boundaries, population densities, and the knowledge of community members was used to classify schools into one of three location categories: urban {N= 1588), urban fringe {N= 379), and rural (A^= 234). Each subject was measured for: height, weight, and aerobic performance (Leger). Physical activity was evaluated with the self-report Participation Questionnaire (free-time and organized sport activities), and teacher's evaluations of student activity. Overweight (overweight and obesity combined) was measured both as a continuous (BMI) and categorical variable (BMI category), to evaluate the prevalence by location. A multivariate analysis was used to test for a suppression effect. Results: BMI and BMI category did not differ significantly by location or gender, and no evidence of a gender interaction existed. According to both a linear and logistic regression, physical activity or fitness levels did not suppress the influence of location on BMI and BMI category. Age, gender, free-time activity, organized sports, fitness level, and number of siblings, were all found to significantly influence overweight. Conclusions: It is plausible that the prevalence of overweight does not differ in urban and rural children from the Niagara Region. Further investigation is recommended, examining subjects by individual location of residence, in multiple regions throughout Ontario.