Physiological reactivity and the perception of emotional stimuli as they relate to social adaptive functioning after traumatic brain injury / y Melonie Jane Hopkins.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) often affects social adaptive functioning and these changes in social adaptability are usually associated with general damage to the frontal cortex. Recent evidence suggests that certain neurons within the orbitofrontal cortex appear to be specialized for the processing of faces and facial expressions. The orbitofrontal cortex also appears to be involved in self-initiated somatic activation to emotionally-charged stimuli. According to Somatic Marker Theory (Damasio, 1994), the reduced physiological activation fails to provide an individual with appropriate somatic cues to personally-relevant stimuli and this, in turn, may result in maladaptive behaviour. Given the susceptibility of the orbitofrontal cortex in TBI, it was hypothesized that impaired perception and reactivity to socially-relevant information might be responsible for some of the social difficulties encountered after TBL Fifteen persons who sustained a moderate to severe brain injury were compared to age and education matched Control participants. In the first study, both groups were presented with photographs of models displaying the major emotions and either asked to identify the emotions or simply view the faces passively. In a second study, participants were asked to select cards from decks that varied in terms of how much money could be won or lost. Those decks with higher losses were considered to be high-risk decks. Electrodermal activity was measured concurrently in both situations. Relative to Controls, TBI participants were found to have difficulty identifying expressions of surprise, sadness, anger, and fear. TBI persons were also found to be under-reactive, as measured by electrodermal activity, while passively viewing slides of negative expressions. No group difference,in reactivity to high-risk card decks was observed. The ability to identify emotions in the face and electrodermal reactivity to faces and to high-risk decks in the card game were examined in relationship to social monitoring and empathy as described by family members or friends on the Brock Adaptive Functioning Questionnaire (BAFQ). Difficulties identifying negative expressions (i.e., sadness, anger, fear, and disgust) predicted problems in monitoring social situations. As well, a modest relationship was observed between hypo-arousal to negative faces and problems with social monitoring. Finally, hypo-arousal in the anticipation of risk during the card game related to problems in empathy. In summary, these data are consistent with the view that alterations in the ability to perceive emotional expressions in the face and the disruption in arousal to personally-relevant information may be accounting for some of the difficulties in social adaptation often observed in persons who have sustained a TBI. Furthermore, these data provide modest support for Damasio's Somatic Marker Theory in that physiological reactivity to socially-relevant information has some value in predicting social function. Therefore, the assessment of TBI persons, particularly those with adaptive behavioural problems, should be expanded to determine whether alterations in perception and reactivity to socially-relevant stimuli have occurred. When this is the case, rehabilitative strategies aimed more specifically at these difficulties should be considered.

A framework for understanding the factors that influence spectators' recall and recognition of embedded sponsorship stimuli

Now, more than ever, sponsors of athletic events demand to see evidence of a commercial return, such as enhanced brand awareness, for their investment of cash or non-cash resources (Lough et aI., 2000). The most common way to measure the impact of perimeter signage (Le., any billboard or sign that displays a company's brand name and/or logo and which surrounds the playing area) on spectators' awareness of event sponsors has been through the use of brand name recall and recognition tests (Shilbury & Berriman, 1996). Recall testing requires spectators to list all of the sponsors they can remember seeing at, for example, an athletic event, strictly from memory and without any help (Cuneen & Hannan, 1993). With recognition testing, spectators are required to identify sponsors from a prepared list which include "dummy" brand names (i.e., sponsors that are present in the list but which do not actually sponsor the event). In order to determine whether sponsors' brand awareness objectives are being met, it is important for sport and recreation marketers to understand what influences a spectator's ability to remember (Le., recall and/or recognize) the brand names of companies who advertise on perimeter signage. The purpose this study was to examine the factors that influence spectators' recall and recognition of embedded sponsorship stimuli (i.e., company brand names on perimeter signage surrounding the play area) at a Canadian University's men's basketball game and football game. These factors included the number of games spectators attended over the course of the season (i.e., repeated exposure to sponsorship stimuli), spectators' level of involvement with the event, and spectators' level of involvement with the advertisements (i.e., perimeter signage). This study also examined the differences between recall and recognition as a means of measuring spectators' awareness of sponsors, and attempted to determine if there are sport differences in spectators' recall and recognition of perimeter signage. Upon leaving the football stadium or gymnasium, spectators were approached, at random, by trained research assistants located at each exit and asked to complete a brief survey questionnaire. Respondents completed the survey on-site. A total of 358 completed surveys were collected from spectators who attended the football (N = 277) and basketball (N = 81) games. The data suggest that football and basketball respondents recognized more sponsors' brand names than they recalled. In addition, football respondents who were highly involved with the event (i.e., those individuals who viewed attending the events as fun, interesting and exciting) attended more games over the course of the season and had significantly higher brand name recognition of sponsors who advertised on perimeter signage than those individuals with low involvement with the athletic event. Football respondents who were highly involved with the sponsors' advertisements (i.e., those individuals who viewed sponsors' perimeter signage as appealing, valuable and important) had significantly higher brand name recall of event sponsors than those individuals with low involvement with these sponsors' advertisements. Repeated exposure to perimeter signage did not have a significant influence on football or basketball respondents' recall or recognition of sponsors. Finally, the data revealed that football respondents had significantly higher recall of sponsors' brand names than basketball respondents. Conversely, basketball respondents had significantly higher recognition of sponsors' brand names than did football respondents.

Astringency and other oral sensations : biological sources of individual variation and association with food and beverage behaviour

Orosensory perception strongly influences liking and consumption of foods and beverages. This thesis examines the influence of biological sources of individual variation on the perception of prototypical orosensory stimuli, food liking, self-reported alcohol liking and consumption, and indices of health. Two orosensory indices were examined: propylthiouracil (PROP) responsiveness, a genetically-mediated index of individual variation associated with enhanced responsiveness to orosensory stimuli often expressed as PROP taster status (PTS); and thermal taster status (TTS), a recently reported index of orosensory responsiveness. Taster status in PTS and/or TTS confers greater responsiveness to most orosensory stimuli. Gender, age, ethnicity, and fungiform papillae (FP) density were not associated with orosensory responsiveness to tastants, an astringent, and a flavour. Unlike PROP responsiveness, FP density was not associated with TTS. Both PROP responsiveness and TTS were associated with increased responsiveness to orosensory stimuli, including temperature and astringency. For PROP, this association did not hold when stimuli were presented at cold or warm temperatures, which are ecologically valid since most foods and beverages are not consumed at ambient temperature. Thermal tasters (TTs), who perceive 'phantom' taste sensations with lingual thermal stimulation, were more responsive to stimuli at both temperatures than thermal non-tasters (TnTs). While PTS, TIS, and gender affected self-reported liking and consumption of some alcoholic beverages, gender associated with the greatest number of beverage types and consumption parameters, with males generally liking and consuming alcoholic beverages more than females. Age and gender were the best predictors of alcoholic beverageAiking and consumption. As expected, .. liking of bitter and fatty foods and cream was inversely related to PROP responsiveness. TTS did not associate with body mass index or waist circumference, and contrary to previous studies, neither did PROP responsiveness. Taken together, TnTs' greater liking of cooked fruits and vegetables and high alcohol, and astringent alcoholic beverages than TTs suggests differences between TTS groups may be driven by perceived temperature and texture. Neither an interaction between PTS and TTS nor a TTS effect on PROP responsiveness was observed, suggesting these two indices of individual variation exert their influences on orosensory perception independently.

SYNTHESIS OF CYCLIC AZOBENZENE ANALOGUES FOR INCORPORATION INTO OLIGONUCLEOTIDES, PEPTIDES AND POLYMERS

(A) In recent years, considerable amount of effort has contributed towards enhancing our understanding of the new photoswitch, cyclic azobenzene, particularly from the theoretical point of view. However, the challenging part with this system was poor efficiency of its synthesis from 2,2’- dinitrodibenzyl and lack of effective methods for further modification which would be useful to incorporate this system into biomolecules as a photoswitch. We report the synthesis of cyclic azobenzene and analogues from 2,2’-dinitrodibenzyl, which would allow for further incorporation of this cyclic azobenzene into biomolecules. Reaction of 2,2’-dinitrodibenzyl with zinc metal powder in the presence of triethylammonium formate buffer (pH-9.5) gave a cyclic azoxybenzene, 11,12-dihydrodibenzo[c,g][1,2]diazocine-5-oxide. The latter compound was converted into cyclic azobenzene analogues (bromo-, chloro-, cyano-, and carboxyl) through subsequent transformations. The carboxylic acid analogue was reacted with D-threoninol to give the corresponding amide, which readily undergoes photo-isomerization upon illumination with light. Upon illumination with light at 400 nm, approximately 70% of cis- isomer of amide was isomerized to trans- isomer. It was observed that cis- to trans- isomerization reached the maximum steady state of light transmission after approximately 40 min, whereas the trans- to cis- isomerization approximately acquired in 2 h to regain full recovery of light transmission. Cyclic azobenzene phosphoramidite was synthesized from DMT-protected D-threoninol linked cyclic azobenzene. (B) In recent years, there has been considerable interest invested towards the synthesis of azobenzene analogues for incorporation into proteins. Among the many azobenzene analogues, the synthesis of bi-functional cyclic azobenzene analogues for the incorporation into proteins is relatively new. In this thesis, we report the synthesis of a cyclic azobenzene biscarboxylic acid from 4-(bromomethyl)benzonitrile. (C) Azobenzene has been widely used in the field of polymer science to study the surface morphology and surface properties of polymers. In this thesis, we report the incorporation of cyclic azobenzene into a commercial polymer 2- (hydroxyethyl)methacrylate. Samples collected after 24 h from the reaction solution showed approximately 9% of incorporation of cyclic azobenzene into polymer compared to samples collected after 10 h, which showed approximately 6% incorporation.

Lipase-Mediated Enzymatic Catalysis For The Synthesis of New Chiral Polymers

Immobilized lipase B from Candida antarctica (N435) was investigated as a potential biocatalyst to generate silicone-based chiral polymers from monomers derived from the enzymatic dihydroxylation of bromobenzene. Several conditions and parameters have been investigated for this purpose and lipase transesterification preference to each of the free secondary alcohols in the chiral monomers was documented. The N435 was challenged with a series of substrates where the free alcohol moieties were systematically protected in order to study the substrate preference(s) for the transesterification reactions.

Empathy and Emotion Processing in Mild Head Injury and Sub-clinical Psychopathy

The current study sought to investigate the nature of empathic responding and emotion processing in persons who have experienced Mild Head Injury (MHI) and how this relationship between empathetic responding and head injury status may differ in those with higher psychopathic characteristics (i.e., subclinical psychopathy). One-hundred university students (36% reporting having a previous MHI) completed an Emotional Processing Task (EPT) using images of neutral and negative valence (IAPS, 2008) designed to evoke empathy; physiological responses were recorded. Additionally, participants completed measures of cognitive competence and various individual differences (empathy - QCAE; Reniers, 2011; Psychopathy - SRP-III, Williams, Paulhus & Hare, 2007) and demographics questionnaires. MHI was found to be associated with lower affective empathy and physiological reactivity (pulse rate) while viewing images irrespective of valence, reflecting a pattern of generalized underarousal. The empathic deficits observed correlated with the individual’s severity of injury such that the greater number of injury characteristics and symptoms endorsed by a subject, the more dampened the affective and cognitive empathy reactions to stimuli and the lower his/her physiological reactivity. Importantly, psychopathy interacted with head injury status such that the effects of psychopathy were significant only for individuals indicating a MHI. This group, i.e., MHI subjects who scored higher on psychopathy, displayed the greatest compromise in empathic responding. Interestingly, the Callous Affect component of psychopathy was found to account for the empathic and emotion processing deficits observed for individuals who report a MHI; in contrast, the Interpersonal Manipulation component emerged as a better predictor of empathic and emotion deficits observed in the No MHI group. These different patterns may indicate the involvement of different underlying processes in the manifestation of empathic deficits associated with head injury or subclinical psychopathy. It also highlights the importance of assessing for prior head injury in populations with higher psychopathic characteristics due to the possible combined/enhanced influences. The results of this study have important social implications for persons who have experienced a concussion or limited neural trauma since even subtle injury to the head may be sufficient to produce dampened emotion processing, thereby impacting one’s social interactions and engagement (i.e., at risk for social isolation or altered interpersonal success). Individuals who experience MHI in conjunction with certain personality profiles (e.g., higher psychopathic characteristics) may be particularly at risk for being less capable of empathic compassion and socially-acceptable pragmatics and, as a result, may not be responsive to another person’s emotional well-being.