Towards a just community: an examination of the development of cultural citizenship rights in Canada from a communitarian perspective

The notion of citizenship, while a basic human right, has come under scrutiny. It was once assumed a liberal inspired regime of citizenship rights would reign as the primary ideological perspective in the Western world, however this has not been the case. Numerous competing paradigms have questioned the premise upon which liberal guarantees of citizenship rights are based. In particular, communitarianism has subjected liberal rights discourse to a closer examination. Communitarian theory holds that universalist principles negate any articulation of community and its internal diversity, such as cultural citizenship. It is this understanding of citizenship that has taken hold in Canada. The Canadian political experience illustrates a number of attributes associated with communitarian thought. It is a collectivist society that articulates a notion of the common good, acknowledges the internal diversity of its citizens and possesses a highly developed deliberative democratic process. To this end, Canada can be described as being more communitarian than liberal in nature in the process it has adopted to address citizenship rights. However, the type of commuIiitarianism displayed in Canada differs from the political models examined by such scholars as Michael Sandel, Iris Marion Young or Will Kymlicka. Cultural citizenship rights are fluid and malleable in Canada. While no clear guarantees of citizenship rights exist, there is a common commitment by Canadians to engage in a fair, open and inclusive deliberative process. This model is unique to Canada; it cannot be exported in that it is a product of Canadian political culture. As a result, the contemporary demands of cultural citizenship are dealt with effectively and democratically in Canada in that the proper mechanisms for public deliberation exist.

Iris Sloman [n.d.]

A young Iris Sloman is pictured in this portrait, date and location unknown. Iris Sloman married Richard Bell in 1939 and the couple resided in St. Catharines, Ontario. Her son, Rick Bell, retrieve this and other family photos from his mother's attic in the 1980s. Branches of the Bell -Sloman family are descended from African American slaves.

Portrait of Young Woman by I. H. Lewis, Photographer [n.d.]

An unidentified young Black woman is featured in this cabinet card portrait by photographer I. H. (Isaac) Lewis, of Toronto. The photographer's name and address is stamped in gold lettering on the lower front of the card. The address is given as 106 1/2 Queen St. W., Toronto. This cabinet card was in the possession of Iris Sloman Bell, of St. Catharines, Ontario. The Bell - Sloman family relatives include former Black slaves from the United States who settled in Canada.Isaac H. Lewis was a photographer in Toronto from 1886 - 1900. Source: Phillips, Glen C. The Ontario photographers list (1851-1900). Sarnia: Iron Gate Publishing Co., 1990.

Cabinet Card of Young Woman Photographed by N. C. Shorey, of Toronto [n.d.]

An unidentified African Canadian young woman is the subject of this cabinet card portrait photograph by N. C. Shorey, of Toronto, Ontario. The photo is undated but believed to be taken in the late 1890s. The photographer's stamp, with his name and address, appears in the gold lettering at the bottom of the card. The young woman in the photograph could possibly be a relative of the Sloman - Bell family, who resided in the London and St. Catharines areas. This cabinet card was in the possession of Iris Sloman Bell, of St. Catharines, Ontario. The Sloman - Bell family relatives are descended from former Black slaves from the United States.N. C. Shorey is listed as a photographer in Toronto, Ont. from 1892 - 1900. Source: Phillips, Glen C. The Ontario photographers list (1851-1900). Sarnia: Iron Gate Publishing Co., 1990. "Cabinet card photographs were first introduced in 1866. They were initially employed for landscapes rather than portraitures. Cabinet cards replaced Carte de visite photographs as the popular mode of photography. Cabinet cards became the standard for photographic portraits in 1870. Cabinet cards experienced their peak in popularity in the 1880's. Cabinet cards were still being produced in the United States until the early 1900's and continued to be produced in Europe even longer. The best way to describe a cabinet card is that it is a thin photograph that is mounted on a card that measures 4 1/4″ by 6 1/2″. Cabinet cards frequently have artistic logos and information on the bottom or the reverse of the card which advertised the photographer or the photography studio's services." Source: http://cabinetcardgallery.wordpress.com/category/cabinet-card-history/

Cabinet Card of Young African Canadian by The Dominion Photo Studio, Toronto [n.d.]

This unidentified African Canadian man is photographed at the Dominion Photo Studio, located at 388 Queen St. West in Toronto. The photographer's name is not known. No date is provided, however, the Dominion Studio is listed as operating from 1893-1894. The reverse of the card displays the Dominion Photo Studio stamp in gold lettering (image also attached). The gentleman in this cabinet card is possibly a relative of the Sloman - Bell family, who settled in the London and St. Catharines areas of Ontario. This cabinet card was among the family memorabilia in the possession of Iris Sloman Bell, of St. Catharines. Relatives of the Sloman - Bell family include former African American slaves who came to Canada.The Dominion Portait Co. is listed as operating from 1893-1894 in Toronto. There is an additional listing for the Dominion Portrait Co. (Gourlay and Clark props.) for 1894. Source: Phillips, Glen C. The Ontario photographers list (1851-1900). Sarnia: Iron Gate Publishing Co., 1990. "Cabinet card photographs were first introduced in 1866. They were initially employed for landscapes rather than portraitures. Cabinet cards replaced Carte de visite photographs as the popular mode of photography. Cabinet cards became the standard for photographic portraits in 1870. Cabinet cards experienced their peak in popularity in the 1880's. Cabinet cards were still being produced in the United States until the early 1900's and continued to be produced in Europe even longer. The best way to describe a cabinet card is that it is a thin photograph that is mounted on a card that measures 4 1/4″ by 6 1/2″. Cabinet cards frequently have artistic logos and information on the bottom or the reverse of the card which advertised the photographer or the photography studio's services." Source: http://cabinetcardgallery.wordpress.com/category/cabinet-card-history/

Tintype of Two Young Women, Seated, with Man [n.d.]

A small tintype of three unidentified individuals, two women, seated, and a young Black gentleman, standing. The date, location and name of the photographer are unknown. This tintype was in the possession of Iris Sloman Bell, of St. Catharines, Ontario. The Sloman - Bell families have relatives who were former American slaves who came to Canada. They later settled in the London and St. Catharines areas of Ontario."Tintypes were the invention of Prof. Hamilton Smith of Ohio. They begin as thin sheets of iron, covered with a layer of black paint. This serves as the base for the same iodized collodion coating and silver nitrate bath used in the ambrotype process. First made in 1856, millions were produced well into the twentieth century. When tintypes were finished in the same sorts of mats and cases used for ambrotypes, it can be almost impossible to distinguish which process was used without removing the image to examine the substrate." Source: American Museum of Photography http://www.photographymuseum.com/primer.html

Tintype of Young African American Woman Seated at Table [n.d.]

Black and white tintype of an unidentified woman seated with hand-colored red detail on her scarf and the tablecloth. The date, location and photographer are unknown. This tintype was in the possession of Iris Sloman Bell, of St. Catharines, Ontario. Relatives of the Bell - Sloman families include former slaves from the United States who escaped to Canada. They later settled in the London and St. Catharines areas of southern Ontario."Tintypes were the invention of Prof. Hamilton Smith of Ohio. They begin as thin sheets of iron, covered with a layer of black paint. This serves as the base for the same iodized collodion coating and silver nitrate bath used in the ambrotype process. First made in 1856, millions were produced well into the twentieth century. When tintypes were finished in the same sorts of mats and cases used for ambrotypes, it can be almost impossible to distinguish which process was used without removing the image to examine the substrate." Source: American Museum of Photography http://www.photographymuseum.com/primer.html

Tintype of Sad Young Black Girl Perched on Bench [n.d.]

This unhappy looking young girl is featured in an early black and white tintype photograph. The date, location and name of the photographer are unknown. This small tintype was in the possession of Iris Sloman Bell, of St. Catharines, Ontario. The Sloman - Bell families have descendants who are former slaves from the United States."Tintypes were the invention of Prof. Hamilton Smith of Ohio. They begin as thin sheets of iron, covered with a layer of black paint. This serves as the base for the same iodized collodion coating and silver nitrate bath used in the ambrotype process. First made in 1856, millions were produced well into the twentieth century. When tintypes were finished in the same sorts of mats and cases used for ambrotypes, it can be almost impossible to distinguish which process was used without removing the image to examine the substrate." Source: American Museum of Photography http://www.photographymuseum.com/primer.html

Small Tintype of Young Black Woman, Seated [n.d.]

A young woman seated with arm resting on a side table is pictured in this small black and white tintype photograph. The date, location and name of the photographer are unknown. This tintype was among the family memorabilia in the possession of Iris Sloman Bell, of St. Catharines, Ontario. The Sloman - Bell families have relatives who were former slaves from the United States. They escaped to Canada and later settled in the London and St. Catharines areas of Ontario."Tintypes were the invention of Prof. Hamilton Smith of Ohio. They begin as thin sheets of iron, covered with a layer of black paint. This serves as the base for the same iodized collodion coating and silver nitrate bath used in the ambrotype process. First made in 1856, millions were produced well into the twentieth century. When tintypes were finished in the same sorts of mats and cases used for ambrotypes, it can be almost impossible to distinguish which process was used without removing the image to examine the substrate." Source: American Museum of Photography http://www.photographymuseum.com/primer.html

Tintype of Young African American Woman Standing with Purse [n.d.]

An unidentified young African American woman stands beside a chair in this small black and white tintype, undated. The name of the photographer is unknown. This tintype was in the possession of the Iris Sloman Bell, of St. Catharines. The Sloman - Bell families have relatives who are descended from former American slaves who settled in Canada."Tintypes were the invention of Prof. Hamilton Smith of Ohio. They begin as thin sheets of iron, covered with a layer of black paint. This serves as the base for the same iodized collodion coating and silver nitrate bath used in the ambrotype process. First made in 1856, millions were produced well into the twentieth century. When tintypes were finished in the same sorts of mats and cases used for ambrotypes, it can be almost impossible to distinguish which process was used without removing the image to examine the substrate." Source: American Museum of Photography http://www.photographymuseum.com/primer.html