Contributing factors to women's sustained participation on varsity athletic teams /

This study explores the factors contributing to female athletes' sustained participation on varsity athletic teams. Ten open-ended interviews were conducted with female varsity athletes to investigate what contributes to their sustained involvement in sport until and throughout university. Each interview was transcribed and then coded for emergent themes and categories. Grounded in the data were themes such as socialization, support systems, motivational factors, passion, opportunity to play, and physical ability. The results demonstrate that for women to continue to participate in sport, a positive learning environment must be created in which the women may share and grow in their experiences as a collective whole. Relationships are a dominant factor for sustained participation in athletics. There are a number of questions presented that may lead to further research, specifically in regard to what physical educators and coaches may implement in an educational, athletic, or practice setting to enhance females' positive experiences.

Bone properties and skeletal maturity in adolescent males, as assessed by quantitative ultrasound

ABSTRACT Background: Previous studies have implied that weight-bearing, intense and prolonged physical activities optimize bone accretion during the grow^ing years. The majority of past inquiries have used dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) to examine bone strength and hand-wrist radiography to determine skeletal maturity in children. Recently, quantitative ultrasound (QUS) technologies have been developed to examine bone properties and skeletal maturity in a safe, noninvasive and cost-effective manner. Objective: The purpose of this study was to compare bone properties and skeletal maturity in competitive male child and adolescent athletes with minimallyactive, age-matched controls, using QUS technology. >. Methods: In total, 224 males were included in the study. The 115 pre-pubertal boys aged 10-12 years consisted of control, minimally-active children (n=34), soccer players (n=26), gymnasts (n=25) and hockey players (n=30). In addition, the 109 late-pubertal boys aged 14-16 years consisted of control, minimally-active adolescents (n=31), soccer players (n=30), gymnasts (n=17) and hockey players (n=31). The athletic groups were elite level players that predominantly trained year-round. Physical activity, nutrition and sports participation were assessed with various questionnaires. Anthropometries, such as height, weight and relative body fat percentage (BF%) were assessed using standard measures. Skeletal strength and age were evaluated using bone QUS. Lastly, salivary testosterone (sT) concentration was measured using Radioimmunoassay (RIA). Results: Within each age group, there were no significant differences between the activity groups in age and pubertal stage. An age effect was apparent in all variables, as expected. A sport effect was noted in all physical characteristics: the child and adolescent gymnasts were shorter and lighter than other sports groups. Adiposity was greater in the controls and in the hockey players. All child subjects were pubertal stage (fanner) I or II, while adolescent subjects were pubertal stage IV or V. There were no differences in daily energy and mineral intakes between sports groups. In both age groups, gymnasts had a higher training volume than other athletic groups. Bone speed of sound (50s) was higher in adolescents compared with the children. Gymnasts had signifieantly higher radial 50S than controls, hockey and soccer players in both age cohorts. Hockey athletes also had higher radial 50S than controls and soccer players in the child and adolescent groups, respectiyely. Child gymnasts and soccer players had greater tibial 50S compared with the hockey players and control groups. Likewise, adolescent gymnasts and soccer players had higher tibial SoS compared with the control group. No interaction was apparent between age and type of activity in any of the bone measures. » Lastly, maturity as assessed by sT and secondary sex characteristics (Tanner stage) was not different between sports group within each age group. Despite the similarity in chronological age, androgen levels and sexual maturity, differences between activity groups were noted in skeletal maturity. In the younger group, hockey players had the highest bone age while the soccer players had the lowest bone age. In the adolescent group, gymnasts and hockey players were characterized by higher skeletal maturity compared with controls. An interaction between the age and sport type effects was apparent in skeletal maturity, reflecting the fact that among the children, the soccer players were significantly less mature than the rest of the groups, while in the adolescents, the controls were the least skeletally mature. Summary and Conclusions: In summary, radial and tibial SOS are enhanced by the unique loading pattern in each sport (i.e, upper and lower extremities in gymnastics, lower extremities in soccer), with no cumulative effect between childhood and adolescence. That is, the effect of sport participation on bone SOS was apparent already among the young athletes. Enhanced bone properties among athletes of specific sports suggest that participation in these sports can improve bone strength and potential bone health.

Education, sport and myth in the community of Glengarry, Ontario : the athletic career of Roderick R. McLennan. 260 St. Catharines, Ont. : Faculty of Education, Brock University ;

This study examined how the athletic career of Roderick R. McLennan contributed to the popularization and subsequent development of Caledonian games in Ontario during the latter nineteenth century. Initially, the development of Caledonian games during the 1800s was examined to provide a contextual framework for McLennan's career. This investigation revealed that the games emerged from rural athletic events at pioneer working bees in the first quarter of the nineteenth century to regional sporting events by the mid-1800s, and finally into annual federated Caledonian games in 1870. Noteworthy primary source material for this chapter included the John MacGillivray Papers at the National Archives of Canada, the Scottish American Journal (NY) and the files retained by the Glengarry Sport Hall of Fame in Maxville, Ontario. Following the investigation of Caledonian games, McLennan's early athletic career was studied. Analysis of the Roderick and Farquhar McLennan Papers at the Archives of Ontario and the newspapers from the period revealed that McLennan rose to popularity in 1865 through a "Championship of the World" hammer throwing match in Cornwall and two "Starring Tours". The next chapter examined the height of McLennan's career through an investigation of the Roderick McLennan versus Donald Dinnie rivalry of the early .. n 1870s. It was detennined that the rivalry between McLennan and Dinnie, the champion athlete of Highland games in Scotland, was a popular attraction and had an impact on the Toronto and Montreal games of 1870 and the Toronto games of 1872. Finally, the athletic records established by McLennan during the 1860s and 1870s were investigated. These records were examined through the context of a media controversy over McLennan's feats that developed in the early 1880s between two newspapers. This controversy erupted between the Toronto Mail and the Spirit of the Times. Caledonian games in Canada have only been briefly examined and a thorough examination of prominent Canadian figures in this context has yet to be undertaken. This study unearths a prominent Canadian athlete of Scottish decent and details his involvement in the Caledonian games of nineteenth century Ontario.

Imagery or video feedback : which is the "route" to strategic improvement?

The implementation of imagery and video feedback programs has become an important tool for aiding athletes in achieving peak performance (Halliwell, 1990). The purpose of the study was to determine the effect of strategic imagery training and video feedback on immediate performance. Participants were two university goaltenders. An alternating treatment design (ATD; Barlow & Hayes, 1979; Tawney & Gast, 1984) was employed. The strategies were investigated using three plays originating from the right side by a right-handed shooting defenceman from the blueline. The baseline condition consisted of six practices and was used to establish a stable and "ideal" measure of performance. The intervention conditions included alternating the use of strategic imagery (Cognitive general; Paivio, 1985) and video feedback. Both participants demonstrated an increase in the frequency of Cognitive general use. Specific and global performance measures were assessed to determine the relative effectiveness of the interventions. Poor inter-rater reliability resulted in the elimination of specific performance measures. Consequently, only the global measure (i.e., save percentage) was used in subsequent analyses. Visual inspection of participant save percentage was conducted to determine the benefits of the intervention. Strategic imagery training resulted in performance improvements for both participants. Video feedback facilitated performance for Participant 2, but not Participant 1. Results are discussed with respect to imagery and video interventions and the challenges associated with applied research. KEYWORDS: imagery, video, goaltenders, alternating treatment design.

The female coach as a role model for personal growth and development to the female adolescent athlete

Research interest on the topic of female coaches as role models has recently emerged in the coaching literature. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1963; 1977; 1986) has also emerged as an essential framework in explaining learning through modeling. Previous research has examined the coach as a role model, as well as gender differences between coaches. Several authors, with several different conclusions, have studied the significance of gender as an influencer in role modeling. Whitaker and Molstad in 1988 conducted a study focusing on the coach as a role model. What they found was when they combined the results of high school and college aged athletes; the female coach was considered to be a superior role model. The current research used a social learning theory framework to examine the benefits and intricacies of the modeling relationship between female adolescent athletes and influential female coaches. To accomplish this task, the formative experiences of thirteen adolescent female athletes were examined. Each athlete was interviewed, with each semi-structured interview focusing on extracting the salient features of a coach that the athlete identified as being the most influential in her personal development. The data from these interviews were quaHtatively analyzed using case studies. From case studies, a template emerges in which the coach/athlete relationship can be seen as an essential construct in which caring and strong role models can have lasting effects on the lives, values, and successes of adolescent female athletes.

Bone speed of sound, biochemical markers of bone turnover and IGF-1 in competetive synchronized swimmers

The purpose of this study was to compare bone speed of sound (SOS) measured by quantitative ultrasound, circulating levels of IGF- 1 and biochemical markers of bone turnover in pre- (Pr) and post-menarcheal (Po) synchronized swimmers (SS) and controls (NS). Seventy participants were recruited: 8 PrSS, 22 PoSS, 20 PrNS, and 20 PoNS. Anthropometric measures of height, weight, skeletal maturity and percent body fat were taken, and dietary intake evaluated using 24-hour recall. Bone SOS was measured at the distal radius and mid-tibia and blood samples analyzed for IGF-1, osteocalcin, NTx, and 25-OH vitamin D. Results demonstrated maturational effects on bone SOS, IGF-1 and bone turnover (p<0.05), with no differences observed between SS and NS. Main effects were observed for a reduced caloric intake in SS compared to NS (p<0.05). Therefore, SS does not offer additive affects on bone strength but imparts no adverse affects to skeletal health in these athletes.

The effects of athletic scholarships on motivation in sport

The presence of rewards has been found to undermine intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1999). This conclusion is primarily based on research conducted in non-sporting environments. The purpose of this study was to examine perceived motivational changes resulting from the hypothetical manipulation of a reward (i.e., athletic scholarships). Differences in "present" motivation between scholarship and non-scholarship athletes were also assessed. Gender, life roles, and sport experience were also examined in relation to scholarship status. Basketball players from four Ontario (n = 70) and seven U.S. Division I universities (n = 46) were examined. All athletes completed a set of demographic questions, as well as questions from the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS; Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, Briere, & Blais, 1995) which assessed their "present" motivation. Athletes also completed the SMS to evaluate their "perceived future" motivation based on a hypothetical manipulation of the scholarship status. For Ontario non-scholarship athletes, extrinsic regulation (an extrinsic motive) increased with the introduction of a scholarship and the intrinsic motive to experience stimulation decreased. For U.S. scholarship athletes, the intrinsic motive to accomplish things decreased when scholarships were removed. When the two scholarship status groups were compared across "present" levels of motivation, U.S. scholarship males reported significantly higher levels of introjected regulation compared to Ontario non-scholarship males. Ontario non-scholarship females reported significantly higher levels of introjected regulation compared to U.S. scholarship females. U.S. scholarship athletes reported significantly higher levels of external regulation compared to Ontario non-scholarship athletes. Results offer partial support for self-determination theory. Implications for future research are discussed.

Canadian curling coaches' use of psychological skills training

Hom's (2008) model of coaching effectiveness proposes a series of direct relationships between the beliefs and values of coaches, their behaviours, and the perceptions of their athletes. One specific area of coaching behaviour that is in need of more research is their use of psychological skills training (PSn. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the beliefs and behaviours of curling coaches with respect to PST, and the perceptions of their athletes. In collaboration with the Canadian Curling Association, data was collected from a national sample of 115 curling teams with varying levels of competition and experience. One hundred and fifteen coaches completed PST attitude (SPA-RC-revised) and behaviour (MSQ-revised) measures, while 403 athletes completed two perception measures (CCS and S-CI). Interclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were calculated to ensure intra-team consistency. All ICCs were positive, ranging from r =.39 to .56, and significant at the p < .01 level. A series of multiple regressions were performed. Three of the four regression models were significant, with coaches' PST behaviours accounting for 16% of the variance in athletes' evaluation of their coaches' competencies (GeC). The models for athletes' PhysicalSport Confidence (P-SC) and Cognitive-Sport Confidence (C-SC) accounted for 15% and 36% of the variation, with GCC and coaches' PST behaviours both being significant predictors of the models. After statistically controlling the influence of GCC, coaches' PST behaviours accounted for 3% and 26% of the variation in athletes P-SC and C-SC. These results provide partial support for Hom's (2008) model of coaching effectiveness, and offer new insight into the benefits of coaches' use of sport psychology-related training behaviours.

Collegiate volleyball players' need fulfillment, balance and well-being

Proponents of Basic Needs Theory (BNT; Deci & Ryan, 2002) contend that the mechanism underpinning psychological well-being is the fulfillment of basic psychological needs with their fulfillment addressed in an independent (Deci & Ryan, 2002) or balanced manner (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006). The purpose of this investigation was to explore the associations between the fulfillment of basic psychological needs and two forms of psychological well-being, namely hedonic and eudaimonic indices. Employing purposive sampling and a cross-sectional design, collegiate volleyball players (N = 219; nfemales = 127) completed a battery of self-report instruments assessing psychological need satisfaction and well-being toward the mid-to-end portion oftheir competitive season. Aligned with BNT (Deci & Ryan, 2002) tenets and study hypotheses, results demonstrated that basic psychological need fulfillment was associated with psychological well-being in the context of volleyball. Albeit minimal, balanced need fulfillment was generally predictive of well-being indices beyond independent need contributions with suppressor effects noted. In sum, the results of the present investigation generally coincide with previous sport based BNT (e.g., Reinboth & Duda, 2006) and balanced need satisfaction (e.g., Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006) literature. Additional BNT support has been garnished and suggests that the fulfillment of the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness may be targeted as the mechanisms to facilitate athletes' psychological well-being. Along with Ryan and Deci's (2007) recommendations, the outcomes of this investigation highlight the need for further empirical study ofBNT's tenets in the realm of sport including assessments of balanced need satisfaction as well as varied hedonic and eudaimonic indices.

Neuromuscular adaptations in endurance-trained boys and men

Competitive sports participation in youth is becoming increasingly more common in the Western world. It is widely accepted that sports participation, specifically endurance training, is beneficial for physical, psychomotor, and social development of children. The research on the effect of endurance training in children has focused mainly on healthrelated benefits and physiological adaptations, particularly on maximal oxygen uptake. However, corresponding research on neuromuscular adaptations to endurance training and the latter's possible effects on muscle strength in youth is lacking. In children and adults, resistance training can enhance strength and mcrease muscle activation. However, data on the effect of endurance training on strength and neuromuscular adaptations are limited. While some evidence exists demonstrating increased muscle activation and possibly increased strength in endurance athletes compared with untrained adults, the neuromuscular adaptations to endurance training in children have not been examined. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine maximal isometric torque and rate of torque development (RID), along with the pattern of muscle activation during elbow and knee flexion and extension in muscle-endurancetrained and untrained men and boys. Subjects included 65 males: untrained boys (n=18), endurance-trained boys (n=12), untrained men (n=20) and endurance-trained men (n=15). Maximal isometric torque and rate of torque development were measured using an isokinetic dynamometer (Biodex III), and neuromuscular activation was assessed using surface electromyography (SEMG). Muscle strength and activation were assessed in the dominant arm and leg, in a cross-balanced fashion during elbow and knee flexion and extension. The main variables included peak torque (T), RTD, rate of muscle activation (Q30), Electro-mechanical delay (EMD), time to peak RTD and co-activation index. Age differences in T, RTD, electro-mechanical delay (EMD) and rate of muscle activation (Q30) were consistently observed in the four contractions tested. Additionally, Q30, nonnalized for peak EMG amplitude, was consistently higher in the endurancetrained men compared with untrained men. Co-activation index was generally low in all contractions. For example, during maximal voluntary isometric knee extension, men were stronger, had higher RTD and Q30, whether absolute or nonnalized values were used. Moreover, boys exhibited longer EMD (64.8 ± 18.5 ms vs. 56.6 ± 15.3 ms, for boys and men respectively) and time to peak RTD (112.4 ± 33.4 ms vs. 100.8 ± 39.1 ms for boys and men, respectively). In addition, endurance-trained men had lower T compared with untrained men, yet they also exhibited significantly higher nonnalized Q30 (1.9 ± 1.2 vs. 1.1 ± 0.7 for endurance-trained men and untrained men, respectively). No training effect was apparent in the boys. In conclusion, the findings demonstrate muscle strength and activation to be lower in children compared with adults, regardless of training status. The higher Q30 of the endurance-trained men suggests neural adaptations, similar to those expected in response to resistance training. The lower peak torque may su9gest a higher relative involvement oftype I muscle fibres in the endurance-trained athletes. Future research is required to better understand the effect of growth and development on muscle strength and activation patterns during dynamic and sub-maximal isometric contractions. Furthennore, training intervention studies could reveal the effects of endurance training during different developmental stages, as well as in different muscle groups.

The reliability of an isometric test based on constant perception of effort

To date there is no documented procedure to extrapolate findings of an isometric nature to a whole body performance setting. The purpose of this study was to quantify the reliability of perceived exertion to control neuromuscular output during an isometric contraction. 21 varsity athletes completed a maximal voluntary contraction and a 2 min constant force contraction at both the start and end of the study. Between pre and post testing all participants completed a 2 min constant perceived exertion contraction once a day for 4 days. Intra-class correlation coefficient (R=O.949) and standard error of measurement (SEM=5.12 Nm) concluded that the isometric contraction was reliable. Limits of agreement demonstrated only moderate initial reliability, yet with smaller limits towards the end of 4 training sessions. In conclusion, athlete's na"ive to a constant effort isometric contraction will produce reliable and acceptably stable results after 1 familiarization sessions has been completed.

Muscle strength and activation characteristics of power- trained and non-athlete boys and men

During maturation, muscle strength is enhanced through muscle growth, although neuro-muscular factors are also believed to be involved. In adults, training for power sports has been shown to enhance muscle strength and activation. The purpose of this study was to examine muscle strength and activation in power-trained athletes (POW) compared with non-athletes (CON), in boys and in adults. After familiarization subjects performed ten 5-s explosive maximal voluntary contractions for elbow and knee flexion and extension. The adults were stronger then the boys and the adult POW were stronger then the adult CON, even after correction for muscle size. Normalized rate of torque development was higher in the adults then in the boys and higher in the POW then CON boys. The rate of muscle activation was higher in the adults and POW groups. The results suggest that maturation and power-training have an additive effect on muscle activation.

The interpretation of environmental sustainability (ES) by the IOC/Olympic Games 1994-2008

The purpose of this qualitative multi-case study was to examine the interpretation of environmental sustainability (ES) within the Olympic 11 Movement. Two research questions guided the inquiry - first, how has the concept of ES been defined by the International Olympic Committee (lOC), and second, how has the concept of ES been defined and enacted by the Organizing Committees ofthe Olympic Games (OCOGs)? During the past two decades, the International Olympic Committee (lOC) established several policies and programs related to ES. Its actions reflect a broader trend of environmentalism within economic and social spheres around the world (Milton-Smith, 2002). Despite the numerous initiatives, the Olympic Games continue to cause significant environmental damage. Frey, et al. (2007) argued that the Olympic Movement contradicts the fundamental premises of ES because the Games are hosted in a two week time period, are situated in a confined area, and accumulate operating and infrastructure costs in the billions of dollars. Further, Etzion (2007) stated "there is positive and significant correlation between firm siz~ and environmental performance" (p. 642) and in the context of the Olympics the sizeimpact relation is striking. Since 1972, the year the UN launched its international environmental awareness efforts, the Summer Olympics grew to 201 nations (39% increase), 10,500 athletes (32% increase), 28 sports (30% increase), and 302 events (43% increase) (Johnson, 2004; Girginov & Parry, 2005; Upegui, 2008). The proliferation of Games activities counters the ES principles that exist within many of the IOC declarations, policies and programs.

Royal Canadian Henley Regatta fonds, 1948-1983 (non-inclusive)

In 1903, the Canadian Association of Amateur Oarsmen had their request granted to make the Old Welland Canal at Port Dalhousie the permanent site of the Royal Canadian Henley Regatta. That same year organized rowing was established in St. Catharines when the St. Catharines Rowing and Canoe Club was formed. The Henley course was completed in July of 1903 after rowing was well underway. Although the Henley course served as an athletic and social event, rowing itself was slow to grow in the St. Catharines area. In 1915 the Regatta was cancelled for the duration of WWI and reinstated in 1919 when an increased public interest in the sport began to grow. Two years later, the Henley Aquatic Association was formed in order to control, maintain and improve the rowing facilities. This association was responsible for building a new clubhouse at Ann Street in 1921 and in 1931 completing the grandstands. Also in the 1930s the association had the Federal Government approve their appeal to have the Henley waters dredged for the first time. The St. Catharines Rowing Club re-located its headquarters to the Lakeport Road site. The 1940s brought more support from local groups and with that more events. In 1945, the St. Catharines Junior Chamber of Commerce began helping to organize and promote rowing locally. One of the new events at the Henley course was the "Schoolboy Championships". The growth of both rowing and the Henley continued growing through the 1950s. The Henley Aquatic Association acquired Reid's Island, now Henley Island, mainly through the efforts of Ted Nelson. In the 1960s, rowing really took off in St. Catharines. Women began to become recognized in the sport when Brock University created a women's rowing team. The second dredging was completed in 1964, leading to the creation of a world class rowing course. The facilities were upgraded to international standards and the Henley rowing course became Canada's first Class A FISA (Fédération Internationale des Sociétés d’Aviron or International Federation of Rowing Associations) rowing course. The first North American Rowing Championship was held at the Henley course in 1967 and again in 1970 for the third championship. The Canadian Henley Rowing Corporation formed in 1972, along with the St. Catharines, Parks and Recreation Department created the first rowing school for youth. Since 1960, St. Catharines has been at a competitive level with other International rowing courses. The city continues to produce Olympic level athletes today.

Tony Biernacki Collection, 1967, 1979-1980, n.d.

Tony Biernacki's rowing career began in 1950 in Ottawa with his first Henley medal in 1952 in the coxless four. Sculling became his real means to success. Since 1955 he has posted record times and had numerous wins in the single. He represented Canada at the National Team between 1958 and 1967 and raced in the single at the British Empire Games and Pan Am Games (Chicago, silver medal) and pair at the Worlds in Yugoslavia in 1966. He won the Olympic trials in 1960 in Rome, but was unable to go. Upon his retirement from competition Tony was hired as the Team Manager for the following Pan Am Games. Tony was hired by Brock University in 1965 as a technician in the Chemistry Department. He became the head rowing coach that same year and began women’s rowing at the university level in Ontario with the first women’s crew in 1967. As Brock's second coach ever, he led the teams to championship form and kept the athletes racing through the summer regatta season. Tony remained at Brock from 1965 to 1980. He was one of the founders of The Canadian Masters Rowing Committee and he helped to initiate master's racing at the Canadian Henley. In 1985 he won the single, double and quad at the World Masters Regatta in Toronto. For a number of years he was also the world record holder for his age category on the C2 ergometer. His last heartfelt project was the construction of a wheelchair ramp at Resurrection Lutheran Church where he was an active member. Mr. Biernacki passed away on January 9, 1998 at the age of 66 after a valiant battle with cancer only a month after being awarded the Canadian Coaching Provincial Coaching Award. He is survived by his wife Janet, daughters Tracy, Tammy Pauls, and Tory Phannenhour, and son, Tony Jr. He is also survived by several grandchildren.