Partie occidentale de l'Empire de Russie, où se trouve distinguée la Russie européenne, divisée par ses gouvernemens ou provinces de Dwinskoy, Oloneckoy, Bielozerskoy, Archangel, Nowogorod, Wolockoy, Ustiuskoy, Moscow, Kiowie, Bielogorod, Woroneskoy, et la Petite Tatarie. La partie Asiatique contient les provinces de Berezowskoy, Mangajeiskoy, Wiatka, Solkamskoy, Pelymskoy, ... Le gouvernement d'Astrachan et les confins du royaume des Kalmaks Eleuths. Dressée d'après les cartes d l'Atlas Russien par le s.r Robert de Vaugondy, fils de m.r Robert geographe ordin'. du roi. Avec privilege 1750.

[N. 1:9000000].

Suomen d ja r sosiofoneettisessa kentässä

Abstract: A sociophonetic perspective on d and r in Finnish

Globalization of pharmaceutical R&D. Pharmaceutical R&D governance forms in People's Republic of China

Yrityksen selviytyminen ja menestyminen ovat riippuvaisia sen kyvystä innovoida, luoda tietoa ja hyödyntää tietämystä ja keksintöjä (Dunk ja Kilgore 2001). Yrityksen menestyminen erityisesti korkean teknologian alalla on siten suoraan riippuvainen sen T&T:stä, johon tehdyt investoinnit tuovat merkittäviä taloudellisia etuja yritykselle uusien tuotteiden, palveluiden ja prosessien muodossa (McEvily ja Chakravarthy 1999). Teknologinen etumatka ja sen tuotteistaminen innovatiivisiksi tarjoamiksi mahdollistaa monopolististen etujen saavuttamisen yrityksen kansainvälisessä kilpailussa (Lall 1977). Tämä kaltainen kilpailuetu voidaan saavuttaa yrityksen kyvyllä yhdistää maantieteellisesti hajautettu T&T:nsä tehokkaaksi verkostoksi (Porter 1986). Boehen (2008) mukaan T&T:n globalisoitumista voidaan johtaa eri hallintömuodoilla: T&T:n kansainvälistymisellä, T&T:n ulkomaille sijoittamisella ja T&T ulkomaille ulkoistamisella. T&T:n globalisoituminen on osa 2000-luvun taloudellista muutosta, ja sille on esitetty useita vaikuttavia tekijöitä, kuten kustannuserot, työvoimaresurssit, erityisosaamiskeskukset, paikallinen teknologia osaaminen ja kohdemarkkinoiden potentiaali (bardhan 2006; Norwood, ym. 2006; von Zedtwitz ja Gassmann 2002). Tutkimuksen on osoitettu eroavan tuotekehityksestä ja eri tekijöiden on osoitettu vaikuttavan niihin (von Zedtwitz ja Gassmann 2002; Leifer ja Triscari 1987). Samoin T&T on osoitettu olevan jatkumo perustavanlaatuisesta soveltavaan ja l��äkekehityksen muodostavan vastaavan T&T jatkumon (Lall 1980; Iansiti 1993), jonka yksittäiset osat vaikuttavat sen hallintomuotoon. Tutkimus esittää eri tekijöitä voivan hyödyntää hallintomuodosta riippuen. Tätä tutkimusta varten tutkija haastatteli l��äketeollisuuden johtajia Kiinassa vahvistaakseen tai hyl��täkseen eri tekijöitä ja niiden suhdetta l��äketeollisen T&T:n hallintomuotoihin. Markkinoiden todettiin olevan ensisijainen tekijä mutta myös kustannuserojen, insentiivien, työvoimaresurssien ja erityisosaamiskeskusten merkitys T&T:n globalisoitumiseen vaikuttavina tekijöinä vahvistettiin yhdessä perusvaatimusten ja riskitekijöiden kanssa. Tutkimuksessa vahvistetaan myös l��äketeollisen T&T-jatkumon vaikutus ja esitetään viitekehys hallintomuodoille.

Globalization of pharmaceutical R&D Pharmaceutical R&D governance forms in People's Republic of China

Firm's survival and success, which are dependent on its ability to innovate, to create knowledge and to capitalize on inventions and know-how, is in essence directly linked to its R&D process (Dunk and Kilgore 2001). Especially in technology driven industries, such as the pharmaceuticals, there are significant positive returns to R&D investments through introduction of new or improved products and services (McEvily and Chakravarthy 1999). Technological lead and its transformation to innovative products as fruits of corporate R&D can be seen as monopolistic advantage that helps enterprises to compete in today’s market (Lall 1977). This competitive advantage can be derived from corporation's ability to integrate its activities across geographic locations (Porter 1986). According to Boehe (2008) globalization of R&D can executed with different governance forms: R&D internationalization, R&D offshoring or R&D offshore outsourcing. Globalization of R&D is intervened with the changes in global economy of the 21st century. Some studies argue for its influencing factors to be access to vast skilled labor pools and centers of excellence (Bardhan 2006). Other studies indicate the R&D cost differentials between countries to be the major expected benefit (Norwood et al. 2006). Von Zedtwitz and Gassmann (2002) presented benefits as divided to accessing markets and customers or to accessing local science and technology. This study proposes that based on governance form distinct factor derived benefits can be capitalized. To corroborate or refute factors and their relations on R&D globalization governance forms, an empirical study based on expert interviews of pharmaceutical directors was conducted in the People's Republic of China. The market was found to be the major influencing factor. Local requirements and adaptation were corroborated as factors connected with markets. Furthermore, influencing factors, such as labour, centers of excellence, cost, financial incentives were corroborated together with conditional and risk factors. Furthermore this research argues that the globalization of pharmaceutical R&D is dependent on the financial, scientific and operational requirements of the drug discovery stage. And thus establishes the influence of drug discovery's stages continuum on pharmaceutical R&D globalization. Finally, a R&D globalization governance form decision framework is proposed based on the frameworks presented in literature and author's corroborated empirical findings.

R&D Performance Analysis: Case Studies on the Challenges and Promotion of the Evaluation and Measurement of R&D

Due to the intense international competition, demanding, and sophisticated customers, and diverse transforming technological change, organizations need to renew their products and services by allocating resources on research and development (R&D). Managing R&D is complex, but vital for many organizations to survive in the dynamic, turbulent environment. Thus, the increased interest among decision-makers towards finding the right performance measures for R&D is understandable. The measures or evaluation methods of R&D performance can be utilized for multiple purposes; for strategic control, for justifying the existence of R&D, for providing information and improving activities, as well as for the purposes of motivating and benchmarking. The earlier research in the field of R&D performance analysis has generally focused on either the activities and considerable factors and dimensions - e.g. strategic perspectives, purposes of measurement, levels of analysis, types of R&D or phases of R&D process - prior to the selection of R&Dperformance measures, or on proposed principles or actual implementation of theselection or design processes of R&D performance measures or measurement systems. This study aims at integrating the consideration of essential factors anddimensions of R&D performance analysis to developed selection processes of R&D measures, which have been applied in real-world organizations. The earlier models for corporate performance measurement that can be found in the literature, are to some extent adaptable also to the development of measurement systemsand selecting the measures in R&D activities. However, it is necessary to emphasize the special aspects related to the measurement of R&D performance in a way that make the development of new approaches for especially R&D performance measure selection necessary: First, the special characteristics of R&D - such as the long time lag between the inputs and outcomes, as well as the overall complexity and difficult coordination of activities - influence the R&D performance analysis problems, such as the need for more systematic, objective, balanced and multi-dimensional approaches for R&D measure selection, as well as the incompatibility of R&D measurement systems to other corporate measurement systems and vice versa. Secondly, the above-mentioned characteristics and challenges bring forth the significance of the influencing factors and dimensions that need to be recognized in order to derive the selection criteria for measures and choose the right R&D metrics, which is the most crucial step in the measurement system development process. The main purpose of this study is to support the management and control of the research and development activities of organizations by increasing the understanding of R&D performance analysis, clarifying the main factors related to the selection of R&D measures and by providing novel types of approaches and methods for systematizing the whole strategy- and business-based selection and development process of R&D indicators.The final aim of the research is to support the management in their decision making of R&D with suitable, systematically chosen measures or evaluation methods of R&D performance. Thus, the emphasis in most sub-areas of the present research has been on the promotion of the selection and development process of R&D indicators with the help of the different tools and decision support systems, i.e. the research has normative features through providing guidelines by novel types of approaches. The gathering of data and conducting case studies in metal and electronic industry companies, in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector, and in non-profit organizations helped us to formulate a comprehensive picture of the main challenges of R&D performance analysis in different organizations, which is essential, as recognition of the most importantproblem areas is a very crucial element in the constructive research approach utilized in this study. Multiple practical benefits regarding the defined problemareas could be found in the various constructed approaches presented in this dissertation: 1) the selection of R&D measures became more systematic when compared to the empirical analysis, as it was common that there were no systematic approaches utilized in the studied organizations earlier; 2) the evaluation methods or measures of R&D chosen with the help of the developed approaches can be more directly utilized in the decision-making, because of the thorough consideration of the purpose of measurement, as well as other dimensions of measurement; 3) more balance to the set of R&D measures was desired and gained throughthe holistic approaches to the selection processes; and 4) more objectivity wasgained through organizing the selection processes, as the earlier systems were considered subjective in many organizations. Scientifically, this dissertation aims to make a contribution to the present body of knowledge of R&D performance analysis by facilitating dealing with the versatility and challenges of R&D performance analysis, as well as the factors and dimensions influencing the selection of R&D performance measures, and by integrating these aspects to the developed novel types of approaches, methods and tools in the selection processes of R&D measures, applied in real-world organizations. In the whole research, facilitation of dealing with the versatility and challenges in R&D performance analysis, as well as the factors and dimensions influencing the R&D performance measure selection are strongly integrated with the constructed approaches. Thus, the research meets the above-mentioned purposes and objectives of the dissertation from the scientific as well as from the practical point of view.

Sovinto riita-asioiden ratkaisukeinona. Sovinnon edellytysten mallintamisesta taloustieteen

Tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan dispositiivisen riita-asian ratkaisua Suomen oikeusjärjestelmässä taloustieteen menetelmiä hyödyntämällä. Tutkielman tarkoituksena on yhtäältä selvittää, miksi osa tapauksista etenee kär��jäoikeuden pääkäsittelyyn, ja toisaalta havainnollistaa sovintoneuvottelun kulkua ja tulosta. Tärkeimpinä l��hteinä ovat olleet S. Shavellin Economic analysis of litigation and the legal process (2003) sekä R. D. Cooterin ja D. L. Rubinfeldin Economic analysis of legal disputes and their resolution (1989). Lisäksi useita peliteoreettisia tutkimuksia on käytetty esikuvana mallien muodostamisessa ja analysoinnissa. Oikeustaloustieteellinen tutkimus perustuu oletukseen, että sovinto on aina tuomiota tehokkaampi ratkaisukeino. Sovinto on kuitenkin mahdollinen vain, jos kantajan odotettu voitto oikeudenkäynnistä on enintään yhtä suuri kuin vastaajan odotettu tappio. Tutkielmassa osoitetaan, että käytännössä sovinnon esteenä on vähintään toisen osapuolen relatiivinen optimismi oikeudenkäynnin lopputuloksesta. Siten sovittelijan tehtävä on poistaa erot asianosaisten informaatiossa, eikä muunsisältöisen sovinnon edistäminen ole oikeustaloustieteen näkökulmasta tehokasta. Oikeuteen voidaan kuitenkin aina edetä positiivisella todennäköisyydellä, jos epäsymmetristä informaatiota ei voida uskottavasti jakaa tai ainakin toisella asianosaisista on kannuste käyttäytyä strategisesti neuvottelussa. Peliteorian avulla on analysoitu sekä neuvotteludynamiikkaa että informaation yksi- ja kaksipuolisen epäsymmetrian vaikutusta neuvotteluongelman tasapainoon. Tuloksena voidaan esittää seuraavat neljä havaintoa: Kun neuvottelun enimmäiskesto tiedetään, sovinnon syntymisen todennäköisyys on suurempi neuvotteluprosessin alkaessa ja päättyessä kuin sen keskivaiheilla. Heikommin informoidun kantajan neuvotteluvoima perustuu oikeudenkäyntiuhkauksen uskottavuuteen, joten hänen on rajoitettava mahdollisuuttaan omaksua epäedullista tietoa kanteen kannattavuudesta. Paremmin informoidulla vastaajalla on kannuste strategiseen käyttäytymiseen, jos sovintotarjous voi paljastaa hänen yksityisen informaationsa. Kun kummallakin osapuolella on yksityistä tietoa, sovintoehdotuksen tekijän on signaloitava tyyppinsä vastapuolelle, ja roolien satunnainen määr��ytyminen saattaa aiheuttaa yhteiskunnallista tehottomuutta liiallisten oikeudenkäyntien vuoksi.

L��äkeaineiden kulku maksassa ja solunsisäisten l��äkeainepitoisuuksien ennustaminen

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