Concepts and Reference. Defending a Dual Theory of Natural Kind Concepts

In this thesis I argue that the psychological study of concepts and categorisation, and the philosophical study of reference are deeply intertwined. I propose that semantic intuitions are a variety of categorisation judgements, determined by concepts, and that because of this, concepts determine reference. I defend a dual theory of natural kind concepts, according to which natural kind concepts have distinct semantic cores and non-semantic identification procedures. Drawing on psychological essentialism, I suggest that the cores consist of externalistic placeholder essence beliefs. The identification procedures, in turn, consist of prototypes, sets of exemplars, or possibly also theory-structured beliefs. I argue that the dual theory is motivated both by experimental data and theoretical considerations. The thesis consists of three interrelated articles. Article I examines philosophical causal and description theories of natural kind term reference, and argues that they involve, or need to involve, certain psychological elements. I propose a unified theory of natural kind term reference, built on the psychology of concepts. Article II presents two semantic adaptations of psychological essentialism, one of which is a strict externalistic Kripkean-Putnamian theory, while the other is a hybrid account, according to which natural kind terms are ambiguous between internalistic and externalistic senses. We present two experiments, the results of which support the strict externalistic theory. Article III examines Fodor’s influential atomistic theory of concepts, according to which no psychological capacities associated with concepts constitute them, or are necessary for reference. I argue, contra Fodor, that the psychological mechanisms are necessary for reference.

Formation of polyelectrolyte multilayers and polyelectrolyte complexes in dual polymer treatment of papermaking pulp

The goal of this study was to find a new approach to modify chemically the properties of paper by improving fiber quality. This Master’s thesis includes the multiple polymer treatment in general and themeasurement methods with which the formation of multilayers and complexes can be noticed. The treatment by an oppositely charged dual polymer system is a good approach to increase paper strength. In this work, starch, a cationic polymer, and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), an anionic polymer, were used step-by-step to improve paper strength. The adsorption of cationic starch and CMC on cellulose fibers were analyzed via polyelectrolyte titration. The results showed that paper strength was enhanced slightly with a layer-by-layer assembly of the polymers. However, if the washing stage, which was required for layer-by-layer assembly, was eliminated, the starch/CMC complex was deposited on fibers more efficiently, and the paper strength was improved more significantly.

The Dual Role of HIF Hydroxylase PHD3 in Cancer Cell Survival

Most advanced tumours face periods of reduced oxygen availability i.e. hypoxia. During these periods tumour cells undergo adaptive changes enabling their survival under adverse conditions. In cancer hypoxia-induced cellular changes cause tumour progression, hinder cancer treatment and are indicative of poor prognosis. Within cells the main regulator of hypoxic responses is the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF). HIF governs the expression of over a hundred hypoxia-inducible genes that regulate a number of cellular functions such as angiogenesis, glucose metabolism and cell migration. Therefore the activity of HIF must be tightly governed. HIF is regulated by a family of prolyl hydroxylase enzymes, PHDs, which mark HIF for destruction in normoxia. Under hypoxic conditions PHDs lose much of their enzymatic activity as they need molecular oxygen as a cofactor. Out of the three PHDs (PHD1, 2 and 3) PHD2 has been considered to be the main HIF-1 regulator in normoxic conditions. PHD3 on the other hand shows the most robust induction in response to oxygen deprivation and it has been implied as the main HIF-1 regulator under prolonged hypoxia. SQSTM1/p62 (p62) is an adaptor protein that functions through its binding motifs to bring together proteins in order to regulate signal transduction. In non-stressed situations p62 levels are kept low but its expression has been reported to be upregulated in many cancers. It has a definitive role as an autophagy receptor and as such it serves a key function in cancer cell survival decisions. In my thesis work I evaluated the significance of PHD3 in cancer cell and tumour biology. My results revealed that PHD3 has a dual role in cancer cell fate. First, I demonstrated that PHD3 forms subcellular protein aggregates in oxygenated carcinoma cells and that this aggregation promotes apoptosis induction in a subset of cancer cells. In these aggregates an adaptor protein SQSTM1/p62 interacts with PHD3 and in so doing regulates PHD3 expression. SQSTM1/p62 expression is needed to keep PHD3 levels low in normoxic conditions. Its levels rapidly decrease in response to hypoxia allowing PHD3 protein levels to be upregulated and the protein to be diffusely expressed throughout the cell. The interaction between PHD3 and SQSTM1/p62 limits the ability of PHD3 to function on its hydroxylation target protein HIF-1alpha. Second, the results indicate that when PHD3 is upregulated under hypoxia it protects cancer cells by allowing cell cycle to proceed from G1 to S-phase. My data demonstrates that PHD3 may either cause cell death or protect the cells depending on its expression pattern and the oxygen availability of tumours.

Dual light barrier method for six degrees of freedom tool center point calibration of an industrial robot

Tool center point calibration is a known problem in industrial robotics. The major focus of academic research is to enhance the accuracy and repeatability of next generation robots. However, operators of currently available robots are working within the limits of the robot´s repeatability and require calibration methods suitable for these basic applications. This study was conducted in association with Stresstech Oy, which provides solutions for manufacturing quality control. Their sensor, based on the Barkhausen noise effect, requires accurate positioning. The accuracy requirement admits a tool center point calibration problem if measurements are executed with an industrial robot. Multiple possibilities are available in the market for automatic tool center point calibration. Manufacturers provide customized calibrators to most robot types and tools. With the handmade sensors and multiple robot types that Stresstech uses, this would require great deal of labor. This thesis introduces a calibration method that is suitable for all robots which have two digital input ports free. It functions with the traditional method of using a light barrier to detect the tool in the robot coordinate system. However, this method utilizes two parallel light barriers to simultaneously measure and detect the center axis of the tool. Rotations about two axes are defined with the center axis. The last rotation about the Z-axis is calculated for tools that have different width of X- and Y-axes. The results indicate that this method is suitable for calibrating the geometric tool center point of a Barkhausen noise sensor. In the repeatability tests, a standard deviation inside robot repeatability was acquired. The Barkhausen noise signal was also evaluated after recalibration and the results indicate correct calibration. However, future studies should be conducted using a more accurate manipulator, since the method employs the robot itself as a measuring device.

Characterization of the filter media used in the dual media filter

The removal of organics from copper electrolyte solutions after solvent extraction by dual media filtration is one of the most efficient ways to ensure the clean electrolyte flow into the electrowinning. The clean electrolyte will ensure the good quality cathode plate production. Dual media filtration uses two layers of filter media for filtration as anthracite and garnet respectively. The anthracite layer will help the coalescing of the entrained organic droplets which will then float to the top of the filter, and back to the solvent extraction process. The garnet layer will catch any solids left in the electrolyte traveling through the filter media. This thesis will concentrate on characterization of five different anthracites in order to find some differences using specific surface area analysis, particle size analysis, and morphology analysis. These results are compared to the pressure loss values obtained from lab column tests and bed expansion behavior. The goal of the thesis was to find out if there were any differences in the anthracite which would make the one perform better than the other. There were no big differences found on any aspect of the particle characterization, but some found differences should be further studied in order to confirm the meaning of the porosity, surface area, intensity mean and intensity SD (Standard Deviation) on anthracites and their use in dual media filtration. The thesis work analyzed anthracite samples the way that is not found on any public literature sources, and further studies on the issue would bring more knowledge to the electrolyte process.

Separating deviant and non-deviant sexual preferences with a dual-target rapid serial visual presentation task

Forskning visar att avvikande sexuell preferens (ASP) är en av de mest centrala prediktorerna för återfall i sexualbrott. Eftersom det är viktigt att det i juridiskt beslutsfattande och behandling av sexualförbrytare finns valida och standardiserade verktyg att tillgå för bedömning av ASP, har forskningen under de senaste åren fokuserats på uppmärksamhetsbaserade metoder. Syftet med avhandlingen var att förbättra uppmärksamhetsbaserade metoder genom utvecklingen av en s.k. Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (dtRSVP) metod för att identifiera ASP. Innan vi testade sampel med sexualbrottslingar så genomförde vi tre studier för att kalibrera förfarandena. I dessa studier undersökte vi möjligheten att differentiera mellan homosexuella och heterosexuella män och hur enkelt deltagarna kunde fuska. Dessutom skapade vi en ny uppsättning standardiserade stimuli för bedömningen av pedofilt sexuellt intresse (Virtual People Set, VPS). I skapandet av stimuli togs de etiska och juridiska problemen i beaktande så långt som möjligt. När vi använde dtRSVP som mätningsförfarande för att skilja åt sexuellläggning i ett sampel av homosexuella och heterosexuella män fann vi att sexuellt relevanta stimuli påverkade informationsbehandlingen på ett förutsägbart sätt. Förfarandet hade en god förmåga att skilja sexuella preferenser mellan grupperna och förfarandet var svårt att påverka genom att fuska. När vi använde dtRSVP som mätningsförfarande för att identifiera avvikande sexuell läggning bland dömda sexbrottslingar fann vi att de visade en annorlunda bearbetning av sexuella stimuli jämfört med andra deltagare och att dessa skillnader var i de förväntade riktningarna. Det var däremot svårt att dra några slutsatser angående denna mätmetods förmåga att skilja mellan grupperna pedofiler och icke-pedofiler. Slutligen fann vi att VPS verkar vara ett användbart stimuluspaket för experimentell forskning om pedofilt sexuellt intresse. ---------------------------------------------------- Tutkimuksien mukaan poikkeava seksuaalinen mieltymys (PSM) on yksi seksuaalirikoksen uusimisen keskeisimmistä ennustajista. Oikeudellisessa päätöksenteossa ja seksuaalirikollisten hoidossa on tärkeää, että on käytettävissä kelvollisia ja standardisoituja välineitä PSM:n arvioinnissa. Sen vuoksi on tutkimuksissa viime vuosina keskitytty huomaavaisuuteen perustuviin menetelmiin. Tämän tutkielman tarkoitus oli parantaa huomaavaisuuteen perustuvia menetelmiä kehittämällä nk. Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (dtRSVP) menetelmän. Kalibroidakseen menettelytapoja suoritettiin kolme tutkimusta ennen kuin tutkittiin koeryhmää, johon kuuluvat seksuaalirikollisia. Näissä tutkimuksissa tutkittiin mahdollisuutta erotella homoseksuaalisia ja heteroseksuaalisia miehiä ja tutkittiin missä määrin osallistujien oli helppo huiputtaa. Sen lisäksi, pedofiilisen seksuaalisen mieltymyksen arviointia varten kehitettiin uutta sarjaa standardisoituja virikkeitä (Virtual People Set, VPS). Kehitettäessä virikkeitä otettiin mahdollisimman pitkälti huomioon eettisiä ja oikeudellisia ongelmia. Käytettäessä dtRSVP mittausmenetelmää erotellakseen homo- ja heteroseksuaalista suuntautumista havaitsimme, että seksuaaliset virikkeet vaikuttivat tietojenkäsittelyyn ennustettavalla tavalla. Menettelytavan avulla pystyttiin erotella koeryhmässä olevia seksuaalisia mieltymyksiä ja menettelytapaan oli vaikeaa vaikuttaa huijaamalla. Käytettäessä dtRSVP mittausmenetelmää tunnistaakseen poikkeavaa seksuaalista mieltymystä tuomittujen seksuaalirikollisten keskenään havaitsimme, että he osoittivat erilaista käsittelyä seksuaalisista virikkeistä toisiin osallistujiin verrattuna ja tulokset olivat ennustettavia. Silti oli vaikeaa tehdä johtopäätöksiä mittausmenetelmän kyvystä erotella ryhmiä pedofiilisiä ja ei-pedofiilisiä miehiä. Lopuksi havaitsimme, että VPS näyttää olevan käyttökelpoinen stimulussarja pedofiilisen seksuaalisen mieltymyksen kokeellisissa tutkimuksissa.