The Possibilities and Dosimetric Limitations of MLC-Based Intensity-Modulated Radiotherapy Delivery and Optimization Techniques

The use of intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) has increased extensively in the modern radiotherapy (RT) treatments over the past two decades. Radiation dose distributions can be delivered with higher conformality with IMRT when compared to the conventional 3D-conformal radiotherapy (3D-CRT). Higher conformality and target coverage increases the probability of tumour control and decreases the normal tissue complications. The primary goal of this work is to improve and evaluate the accuracy, efficiency and delivery techniques of RT treatments by using IMRT. This study evaluated the dosimetric limitations and possibilities of IMRT in small (treatments of head-and-neck, prostate and lung cancer) and large volumes (primitive neuroectodermal tumours). The dose coverage of target volumes and the sparing of critical organs were increased with IMRT when compared to 3D-CRT. The developed split field IMRT technique was found to be safe and accurate method in craniospinal irradiations. By using IMRT in simultaneous integrated boosting of biologically defined target volumes of localized prostate cancer high doses were achievable with only small increase in the treatment complexity. Biological plan optimization increased the probability of uncomplicated control on average by 28% when compared to standard IMRT delivery. Unfortunately IMRT carries also some drawbacks. In IMRT the beam modulation is realized by splitting a large radiation field to small apertures. The smaller the beam apertures are the larger the rebuild-up and rebuild-down effects are at the tissue interfaces. The limitations to use IMRT with small apertures in the treatments of small lung tumours were investigated with dosimetric film measurements. The results confirmed that the peripheral doses of the small lung tumours were decreased as the effective field size was decreased. The studied calculation algorithms were not able to model the dose deficiency of the tumours accurately. The use of small sliding window apertures of 2 mm and 4 mm decreased the tumour peripheral dose by 6% when compared to 3D-CRT treatment plan. A direct aperture based optimization (DABO) technique was examined as a solution to decrease the treatment complexity. The DABO IMRT technique was able to achieve treatment plans equivalent with the conventional IMRT fluence based optimization techniques in the concave head-and-neck target volumes. With DABO the effective field sizes were increased and the number of MUs was reduced with a factor of two. The optimality of a treatment plan and the therapeutic ratio can be further enhanced by using dose painting based on regional radiosensitivities imaged with functional imaging methods.

Neutronisäteilylle altistuminen käytetyn polttoaineen siirrossa Olkiluodon voimalaitoksella

Tässä työssä on tutkittu OL1/OL2-ydinvoimalaitosten käytetyn polttoaineen siirrossa aiheutuvaa altistusta neutronisäteilylle. Käytetty polttoaine siirretään vedellä täytetyssä käytetyn polttoaineen siirtosäiliössä Castor TVO:ssa OL1/OL2-laitoksilta käytetyn polttoaineen varastolle. Siirtotyön aikana useat eri ammattiryhmiin kuuluvat henkilöt työskentelevät siirtosäiliön välittömässä läheisyydessä, altistuen käytetystä polttoaineesta emittoituvalle fotoni- ja neutronisäteilylle. Aikaisemmista neutronisäteilyannosten mittauksista on todettu, ettei jatkuvalle altistuksen seurannalle ole ollut tarvetta. Tämän työn tarkoitus on selvittää teoreettisilla laskelmilla siirtotyöhön osallistuvan henkilön mahdollisuus saada kirjausrajan ylittävä annos neutronisäteilyä. Neutronisäteilyn annosnopeudet siirtosäiliötä ympäröivässä tilassa on laskettu yhdysvaltalaisella Monte Carlo-menetelmään perustuvalla MCNP-ohjelmalla. MCNP:llä mallinnettiin siirtosäiliö, siirtosäiliön sisältämä polttoaine ja ympäröivä tila kolmella jäähtymisajalla ja kolmella keskimääräisellä maksimipoistopalamalla. Polttoainenippujen isotooppikonsentraatiot ja säteilylähteiden voimakkuudet on laskettu Studsvik SNF-ohjelmalla. Simuloinnin perusteella voidaan todeta, ettei neutronisäteilyannosten jatkuvalle seurannalle ole tarvetta käytetyn polttoaineen siirrossa. Vaikka neutronisäteilyn annosnopeudet voivat nousta siirtosäiliön läheisyydessä suhteellisen suuriksi, ovat siirtosäiliön lähellä tehtävät työt niin lyhytaikaisia, että kirjausrajan ylitystä voidaan pitää hyvin epätodennäköisenä. Johtopäätökset varmistetaan työssä suunnitellulla mittausjärjestelyllä.

Development of advanced silicon radiation detectors for harsh radiation environment

This thesis describes the development of advanced silicon radiation detectors and their characterization by simulations, used in the work for searching elementary particles in the European Organization for Nuclear Research, CERN. Silicon particle detectors will face extremely harsh radiation in the proposed upgrade of the Large Hadron Collider, the future high-energy physics experiment Super-LHC. The increase in the maximal fluence and the beam luminosity up to 1016 neq / cm2 and 1035 cm-2s-1 will require detectors with a dramatic improvement in radiation hardness, when such a fluence will be far beyond the operational limits of the present silicon detectors. The main goals of detector development concentrate on minimizing the radiation degradation. This study contributes mainly to the device engineering technology for developing more radiation hard particle detectors with better characteristics. Also the defect engineering technology is discussed. In the nearest region of the beam in Super-LHC, the only detector choice is 3D detectors, or alternatively replacing other types of detectors every two years. The interest in the 3D silicon detectors is continuously growing because of their many advantages as compared to conventional planar detectors: the devices can be fully depleted at low bias voltages, the speed of the charge collection is high, and the collection distances are about one order of magnitude less than those of planar technology strip and pixel detectors with electrodes limited to the detector surface. Also the 3D detectors exhibit high radiation tolerance, and thus the ability of the silicon detectors to operate after irradiation is increased. Two parameters, full depletion voltage and electric field distribution, is discussed in more detail in this study. The full depletion of the detector is important because the only depleted area in the detector is active for the particle tracking. Similarly, the high electric field in the detector makes the detector volume sensitive, while low-field areas are non-sensitive to particles. This study shows the simulation results of full depletion voltage and the electric field distribution for the various types of 3D detectors. First, the 3D detector with the n-type substrate and partial-penetrating p-type electrodes are researched. A detector of this type has a low electric field on the pixel side and it suffers from type inversion. Next, the substrate is changed to p-type and the detectors having electrodes with one doping type and the dual doping type are examined. The electric field profile in a dual-column 3D Si detector is more uniform than that in the single-type column 3D detector. The dual-column detectors are the best in radiation hardness because of their low depletion voltages and short drift distances.