Influence of Equipment Operation and Performance Deterioration on Power Plant Economy.

Pysyäkseen kilpailukykyisenä vapautuneilla sähkömarkkinoilla on voimalaitoksen energiantuotantokustannusten oltava mahdollisimman matalia, tinkimättä kuitenkaan korkeasta käytettävyydestä. Polttoaineen energiasisällön mahdollisimman hyvä hyödyntäminen on ratkaisevan tärkeää voimalaitoksen kannattavuudelle. Polttoainekustannusten osuus on konvektiivisilla laitoksilla yleensä yli puolet koko elinjakson kustannuksista. Kun vielä päästörajat tiukkenevat koko ajan, korostuu polttoaineen korkea hyötykäyttö entisestään. Korkea energiantuotannon luotettavuus ja käytettävyys ovat myös elintärkeitä pyrittäessä kustannusten minimointiin. Tässä työssä on käyty läpi voimalaitoksen kustannuksiin vaikuttavia käsitteitä, kuten hyötysuhdetta, käytettävyyttä, polttoaineen hintoja, ylös- ja alasajoja ja tärkeimpiä häviöitä. Ajostrategiassa ja poikkeamien hallinnassa pyritään hyvään hyötysuhteeseen ja alhaisiin päästöihin joka käyttötilanteessa. Lisäksi on tarkasteltu tiettyjen suureiden, eli höyryn lämpötilan ja paineen, savukaasun hapen pitoisuuden, savukaasun loppulämpötilan, sekä lauhduttimen paineen poikkeamien vaikutusta ohjearvostaan energiantuotantokustannuksiin. Happi / hiilimonoksidi optimoinnissa on otettu huomioon myös pohjatuhkan palamattomat.

Sähköä ja lämpöä tuottavien maakaasukäyttöisten pienvoimalaitosten kannattavuus Turengissa

Diplomityössä tutkitaan sähkön ja lämmön yhteistuotannon kannattavuutta Turengin nykyisen lämmöntuotannon yhteydessä. Tavoitteena on löytää taloudellisesti kilpailukykyiset tuotantovaihtoehdot Turengin energiahuollon kehittämisessä. Ensimmäisenä tarkasteltarkastellaan voimalaitoksen nykyiseen tuotantolaitteistoon kuuluvan vastapainehöyryturbiinin käyttöönoton mahdollisuuksia. Tämän jälkeen suoritetaan kannattavuuslaskelmat neljälle vaihtoehtoiselle investointitapaukselle. Voimalaitosinvestoinnit kohdistuvat kaasumoottori- ja kaasuturbiinivoimalaitoksiin, joilla tuotetaan sähköä, kaukolämpöä ja eräissä tapauksissa myös prosessihöyryä. Voimalaitosten nettosähkötehot ovat neljästä yhdeksään megawattia. Voimalaitosyksiköiden energiantuotanto määritetään Turengin lämpökuormien perusteella. Tuotannon määrityksessä apuna käytetään WinTEHO –ohjelmistoa, johon luodaan tarvittavat energiatiedostot. Kannattavuuslaskelmat suoritetaan vertaamalla investointivaihtoehtojen aiheuttamia vuotuisia kassavirtoja nykyisen tuotannon mukaisiin kassavirtoihin. Kassavirtalaskelmasta saadaan kullekin vaihtoehdolle nettonykyarvo, sisäinen korko ja takaisinmaksuaika. Tarkastelun tuloksena saatiin, että voimalaitosvaihtoehdoista kannattavin on investointi yhteen kaasumoottoriin, jolla tuotetaan sähkön lisäksi vain kaukolämpöä. Alhaisilla sähkön hinnoilla kaasuturbiinivaihtoehdot ovat suunnilleen yhtä kannattavia. Investointien nykyarvo valitulla korkokannalla on positiivinen, kun sähkön markkinahinnan keskiarvo tuotantokaudella ylittää likimain tason 130 mk/MWh. Nykyisillä markkinahinnoilla investoinnit eivät ole kannattavia. Investoiminen uuteen kaasumoottoriin tai -turbiiniin osoittautui kannattavammaksi kuin sähkön tuotannon aloittaminen laitoksen nykyisellä höyryturbiinilla. Merkittävin syy tähän oli höyryturbiinituotannon korkeat henkilöstökustannukset. Tehty selvitys tukee vallitsevaa käsitystä, että nykytekniikalla sähkön ja lämmön yhteistuotanto on taloudellisesti kilpailukykyistä myös pienessä kokoluokassa.

The Optimisation of the Draft Tube of a Hydro Power Plant at Off-Design Conditions

Several possible methods of increasing the efficiency and power of hydro power plants by improving the flow passages are investigated in this stydy. The theoretical background of diffuser design and its application to the optimisation of hydraulic turbine draft tubes is presented in the first part of this study. Several draft tube modernisation projects that have been carried out recently are discussed. Also, a method of increasing the efficiency of the draft tube by injecting a high velocity jet into the boundary layer is presented. Methods of increasing the head of a hydro power plant by using an ejector or a jet pump are discussed in the second part of this work. The theoretical principles of various ejector and jet pump types are presented and four different methods of calculating them are examined in more detail. A self-made computer code is used to calculate the gain in the head for two example power plants. Suitable ejector installations for the example plants are also discussed. The efficiency of the ejector power was found to be in the range 6 - 15 % for conventional head increasers, and 30 % for the jet pump at its optimum operating point. In practice, it is impossible to install an optimised jet pump with a 30 % efficiency into the draft tube as this would considerabely reduce the efficiency of the draft tube at normal operating conditions. This demonstrates, however, the potential for improvement which lies in conventional head increaser technology. This study is based on previous publications and on published test results. No actual laboratory measurements were made for this study. Certain aspects of modelling the flow in the draft tube using computational fluid dynamics are discussed in the final part of this work. The draft tube inlet velocity field is a vital boundary condition for such a calculation. Several previously measured velocity fields that have successfully been utilised in such flow calculations are presented herein.

Lajittumisen dynamiikka epäpuhtauksien ja kuitujen painelajittelussa

Viimevuosina kuvantamistekniikat ovat kehittyneet huomattavasti. Näiden uusien tekniikoiden avulla voidaan tarkastella erilaisia prosesseja aiempaa tarkemmin. Painelajittelun teoriat perustuvat pääasiassa makrotason mittauksien pohjalta tehtyihin matemaattisiin malleihin, ja itse lajittumistapahtumaa ei ole aiemmin päästy kovinkaan tarkasti havainnoimaan. Tämän työn tavoitteena olikin selvittää lajittumistapahtumaa uuden kuvantamistekniikan avulla. Työn kirjallisuusosassa esiteltiin lyhyesti painelajitin ja sen toiminta. Myös painelajittelun perusteoriat käytiin lyhyesti läpi. Teoriaosan pääpaino oli lajittumistapahtumassa ja siihen vaikuttavissa tekijöissä. Lisäksi teoriaosassa esiteltiin teollisen painelajittelun nykytilannetta, työtä varten tehdyn esiselvityksen pohjalta. Lajitinsimulaattorikoeajoissa selvitettiin kuitujen ja roskapartikkelien käyttäyty-mistä painelajittimessa kuvantamisen avulla. Kuvauksissa keskityttiin rakosihdin raon tapahtumiin, sekä sihtipinnan tapahtumiin. Kuvamateriaalista laskettiin kuitujen ja roskien liikenopeuksia lankasihtiprofiilin raossa, sekä sihdin pinnalla. Lisäksi tutkittiin kehänopeuden, tuotannon ja sakeuden vaikutusta liike-nopeuksiin. Kuvamateriaalista pyrittiin myös havainnoimaan mahdollista kuitujen takaisinvirtausta. Kuvantamisella saatiin uutta tietoa kuitujen ja roskapartikkelien liikkeestä painelajittimessa. Tuloksista kävi muun muassa ilmi, että roottorin elementin pienimmän välyksen kohdalla akseptoituu huomattava määrä massaa. Tämä selittyy sillä, että pienimmän välyksen kohta tuottaa huomattavan positiivisen painepulssin. Kuitujen ja roskapartikkelien nopeudet raossa noudattelivat muutenkin hyvin selkeästi elementin tuottamaa painepulssia. Lisäksi kuvamateriaalista havaittiin, että sihdin raon suulle kertyy profiilin korkuinen kuituflokki. Koko sihdin peittävää kuitumattoa ei havaittu.

Fiber flows in global paper and pulp industry. A panel data approach.

The purpose of this thesis is to study factors that explain the bilateral fiber trade flows. This is done by analyzing bilateral trade flows during 1990-2006. It will be studied also, whether there are differences between fiber types. This thesis uses a gravity model approach to study the trade flows. Gravity model is mostly used to study the aggregate data between trading countries. In this thesis the gravity model is applied to single fibers. This model is then applied to panel data set. Results from the regression show clearly that there are benefits in studying different fibers in separate. The effects differ considerably from each other. Furthermore, this thesis speaks for the existence of Linder’s effect in certain fiber types.

Supplier Energy Audits in Thermal Power Plants

This master’s thesis handles an operating model for an electric equipment supplier conducted sale oriented energy audit for pumping, fan and other motor applications at power plants. The study goes through the largest factors affecting internal electricity use at a power plant, finds an energy audit –like approach for the basis of information gathering and presents the information needed for conducting the analysis. The model is tested in practice at a kraft recovery boiler of a chemical pulping mill. Targets chosen represent some of the largest electric motor applications in the boiler itself and in its fuel handling. The energy saving potential of the chosen targets is calculated by simulating the energy consumption of the alternatives for controlling the targets, and thereafter combining the information with the volume flow duration curve. Results of the research are somewhat divaricated, as all the information needed is not available in the automation system. Some of the targets could be simulated and their energy saving potential calculated quite easily. At some of the targets chosen the monitoring was not sufficient enough for this and additional measurements would have been needed to base the calculations on. In traditional energy audits, energy efficiency of pump and fan applications is not necessarily examined. This means that there are good possibilities for developing the now presented targeted energy audit procedure basis further.

Power line communication in motor cables of variable-speed electric drives − analysis and

Data transmission between an electric motor and a frequency converter is required in variablespeed electric drives because of sensors installed at the motor. Sensor information can be used for various useful applications to improve the system reliability and its properties. Traditionally, the communication medium is implemented by an additional cabling. However, the costs of the traditional method may be an obstacle to the wider application of data transmission between a motor and a frequency converter. In any case, a power cable is always installed between a motor and a frequency converter for power supply, and hence it may be applied as a communication medium for sensor level data. This thesis considers power line communication (PLC) in inverter-fed motor power cables. The motor cable is studied as a communication channel in the frequency band of 100 kHz−30 MHz. The communication channel and noise characteristics are described. All the individual components included in a variable-speed electric drive are presented in detail. A channel model is developed, and it is verified by measurements. A theoretical channel information capacity analysis is carried out to estimate the opportunities of a communication medium. Suitable communication and forward error correction (FEC) methods are suggested. A general method to implement a broadband and Ethernet-based communication medium between a motor and a frequency converter is proposed. A coupling interface is also developed that allows to install the communication device safely to a three-phase inverter-fed motor power cable. Practical tests are carried out, and the results are analyzed. Possible applications for the proposed method are presented. A speed feedback motor control application is verified in detail by simulations and laboratory tests because of restrictions for the delay in the feedback loop caused by PLC. Other possible applications are discussed at a more general level.

Assessment of Environmental Impacts of Power Generation

Through indisputable evidence of climate change and its link to the greenhouse gas emissions comes the necessity for change in energy production infrastructure during the coming decades. Through political conventions and restrictions energy industry is pushed toward using bigger share of renewable energy sources as energy supply. In addition to climate change, sustainable energy supply is another major issue for future development plans, but neither of these should come with unbearable price. All the power production types have environmental effects as well as strengths and weaknesses. Although each change comes with a price, right track in minimising the environmental impacts and energy supply security can be found by combining all possible low-carbon technologies and by improving energy efficiency in all sectors, for creating a new power production infrastructure of tolerable energy price and of minor environmental effects. GEMIS-Global Emission Model for Integrated Systems is a life-cycle analysis program which was used in this thesis to make indicative energy models for Finland’s future energy supply. Results indicate that the energy supply must comprise both high capacity nuclear power as well as large variation of renewable energy sources for minimization of all environmental effects and keeping energy price reasonable.

Analysis of outliers in electricity spot prices with exampleof New England and New Zealand markets

Electricity spot prices have always been a demanding data set for time series analysis, mostly because of the non-storability of electricity. This feature, making electric power unlike the other commodities, causes outstanding price spikes. Moreover, the last several years in financial world seem to show that ’spiky’ behaviour of time series is no longer an exception, but rather a regular phenomenon. The purpose of this paper is to seek patterns and relations within electricity price outliers and verify how they affect the overall statistics of the data. For the study techniques like classical Box-Jenkins approach, series DFT smoothing and GARCH models are used. The results obtained for two geographically different price series show that patterns in outliers’ occurrence are not straightforward. Additionally, there seems to be no rule that would predict the appearance of a spike from volatility, while the reverse effect is quite prominent. It is concluded that spikes cannot be predicted based only on the price series; probably some geographical and meteorological variables need to be included in modeling.

Optimization of short term power trading between Russia, Finland and Baltic countries

Russian and Baltic electricity markets are in the process of reformation and development on the way for competitive and transparent market. Nordic market also undergoes some changes on the way to market integration. Old structure and practices have been expired whereas new laws and rules come into force. The master thesis describes structure and functioning of wholesale electricity markets, cross-border connections between different countries. Additionally methods of cross-border trading using different methods of capacity allocation are disclosed. The main goal of present thesis is to study current situation at different electricity markets and observe changes coming into force as well as the capacity and electricity balances forecast in order to optimize short term power trading between countries and estimate the possible profit for the company.

Modelling of North-West Russian market behavior considering technical restrictions of transmission grid

Nowadays the Finnish-Russian electric energy interaction is carried out through the back-to-back DC Vyborg substation and several power plants working synchronously with Finnish power system. Constant amount of energy flows in one direction — from Russia to Finland. But the process of electricity market development in Russian energy system makes the new possibilities of electrical cooperation available. The goal of master's thesis is to analyze the current state and possible evolution trends of North-West Russian system in relation with future possible change in power flow between Russia and Finland. The research is done by modelling the market of North-West Russia and examination of technical grid restrictions. The operational market models of North-West region of Russia for the years 2008 and 2015 were created during the research process. The description of prepared market models together with modelling results and their analysis are shown in the work. The description of power flow study process and results are also presented.

Power Consumption in Carbon Capture and Storage Systems (CCS) and Possibilities to Reduce Power Consumption with Variable Speed Drives

The aim of this master´s thesis is to study which processes increase the auxiliary power consumption in carbon capture and storage processes and if it is possible to reduce the auxiliary power consumption with variable speed drives. Also the cost of carbon capture and storage is studied. Data about auxiliary power consumption in carbon capture is gathered from various studies and estimates made by various research centres. Based on these studies a view is presented how the power auxiliary power consumption is divided between different processes in carbon capture processes. In a literary study, the operation of three basic carbon capture systems is described. Also different methods to transport carbon dioxide and carbon dioxide storage options are described in this section. At the end of the thesis processes that consume most of the auxiliary power are defined and possibilities to reduce the auxiliary power consumption are evaluated. Cost of carbon capture, transport and storage are also evaluated at this point and in the case that the carbon capture and storage systems are fully deployed. According to the results, it can be estimated what are the processes are where variable speed drives can be used and what kind of cost and power consumption reduction could be achieved. Results also show how large a project carbon capture and storage is if it is fully deployed.

Grounding in a wind power application

The subject of this master’s thesis is to research grounding in a particular wind power application. The aim is to define how the grounding from different points effects to the function of the whole system. The investigated subjects are generator voltage spikes, ground currents and system fault situations. The first part of this thesis represents power electronics, which is commonly used in wind power systems. The second part concentrates more to the grounding, electrical safety demands and potential fault situations. The object of the simulations is to investigate voltage spikes and fault situations. Measurements will be made with small-scale setup and in the last part simulation and measurement results are compared to each other and to a full-scale system.

Overvoltage Mitigation Techniques in Wind Power Generators

Advancements in power electronic semiconductor switching devices have lead to significantly faster switching times. In motor and generator applications, the fast switching times of pulse width modulated (PWM) inverters lead to overvoltages caused by voltage reflections with shorter and shorter cables. These excessive overvoltages may lead to a failure of the electrical machine in a matter of months. In this thesis, the causes behind the overvoltage phenomenon as well as its different mitigation techniques are studied. The most suitable techniques for mitigating the overvoltage phenomenon in wind power generator applications are chosen based on both simulations and actual measurements performed on a prototype. An RC filter at the terminals of the electrical machine and an inverter output filter designed to reduce the rise and fall times of voltage pulses are presented as a solution to the overvoltage problem. The performance and losses of both filter types are analysed.