82 resultados para Brittle solids


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Saostettua karbonaattia voidaan käyttää useiden eri teollisuuksien tuotteissa. Pääosin saostettua kalsiumkarbonaattia kuitenkin käytetään paperin, maalien, muovien sekä elintarviketuotteiden täyteaineena. Koska monet käyttökohteet vaativat saostetulta kalsiumkarbonaatilta tiettyjä puhtausvaatimuksia, sen koostumuksen tutkiminen on suuren kiinnostuksen kohteena. Työn perimmäisenä tarkoituksena on ollut määrittää saostetun kalsiumkarbonaatin kemiallinen koostumus ja selvittää, vaikuttavatko materiaalin kemiallisfysikaalinen modifiointi sen ominaisuuksiin. Kirjallisuusosassa käsitellään yleisesti kalsiumkarbonaattimateriaaleja, saostetun kalsiumkarbonaatin valmistusmenetelmiä ja vastaavanlaisen materiaalin esikäsittelymenetelmiä. Lisäksi tarkastellaan erilaisia analyysimenetelmiä, joita voidaan käyttää kiinteiden epäorgaanisten tai mineraalinäytteiden kemiallisen koostumuksen sekä fysikaalisten ja kemiallisten reaktioiden määrittämiseen. Kokeellisessa osassa tutkittiin käsittelemättömiä saostettuja kalsiumkarbonaattinäytteiden ominaisuuksia ja kemiallista koostumusta erilaisilla alkuaine-, ioni-/spesies- sekä pyrolyysimittauksilla. Näytteitä modifioitiin lämmityksen ja jauhatuksen avulla. Modifioinnin vaikutusta näytteiden kemiallisiin koostumuksiin tutkittiin vertailemalla tuloksia käsittelemättömien näytteiden antamiin tuloksiin. Tutkimus osoitti, että näytteiden lämpökäsittelyllä ei ollut lähes ollenkaan vaikutusta näytteiden kemialliseen koostumukseen. Toisin osoitti näytteiden jauhatus, joka laski ammoniumin pitoisuutta näytteissä. Laitetekniikkaa käytettäessä kapillaarielektroforeesi, ionikromatografi, ICP-AES ja SEM (FTIR) antoivat luotettavinta tietoa näytteiden kemiallisista koostumuksista. Näytteiden fysikaalisia ja kemiallisia reaktioita voitiin havainnollistaa parhaiten käyttäen STA-QMS -laitetta.

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The control of coating layer properties is becoming increasingly important as a result of an emerging demand for novel coated paper-based products and an increasing popularity of new coating application methods. The governing mechanisms of microstructure formation dynamics during consolidation and drying are nevertheless, still poorly understood. Some of the difficulties encountered by experimental methods can be overcome by the utilisation of numerical modelling and simulation-based studies of the consolidation process. The objective of this study was to improve the fundamental understanding of pigment coating consolidation and structure formation mechanisms taking place on the microscopic level. Furthermore, it is aimed to relate the impact of process and suspension properties to the microstructure of the coating layer. A mathematical model based on a modified Stokesian dynamics particle simulation technique was developed and applied in several studies of consolidation-related phenomena. The model includes particle-particle and particle-boundary hydrodynamics, colloidal interactions, Born repulsion, and a steric repulsion model. The Brownian motion and a free surface model were incorporated to enable the specific investigation of consolidation and drying. Filter cake stability was simulated in various particle systems, and subjected to a range of base substrate absorption rates and system temperatures. The stability of the filter cake was primarily affected by the absorption rate and size of particles. Temperature was also shown to have an influence. The consolidation of polydisperse systems, with varying wet coating thicknesses, was studied using imposed pilot trial and model-based drying conditions. The results show that drying methods have a clear influence on the microstructure development, on small particle distributions in the coating layer and also on the mobility of particles during consolidation. It is concluded that colloidal properties can significantly impact coating layer shrinkage as well as the internal solids concentration profile. Visualisations of particle system development in time and comparison of systems at different conditions are useful in illustrating coating layer structure formation mechanisms. The results aid in understanding the underlying mechanisms of pigment coating layer consolidation. Guidance is given regarding the relationship between coating process conditions and internal coating slurry properties and their effects on the microstructure of the coating.

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The aim of this study is to gain a better understanding of the structure and the deformation history of a NW-SE trending regional, crustal-scale shear structure in the Åland archipelago, SW Finland, called the Sottunga-Jurmo shear zone (SJSZ). Approaches involving e.g. structural geology, geochronology, geochemistry and metamorphic petrology were utilised in order to reconstruct the overall deformation history of the study area. The study therefore describes several features of the shear zone including structures, kinematics and lithologies within the study area, the ages of the different deformation phases (ductile to brittle) within the shear zone, as well as some geothermobarometric results. The results indicate that the SJSZ outlines a major crustal discontinuity between the extensively migmatized rocks NE of the shear zone and the unmigmatised, amphibolite facies rocks SW of the zone. The main SJSZ shows overall dextral lateral kinematics with a SW-side up vertical component and deformation partitioning into pure shear and simple shear dominated deformation styles that was intensified toward later stages of the deformation history. The deformation partitioning resulted in complex folding and refolding against the SW margin of the SJSZ, including conical and sheath folds, and in a formation of several minor strike-slip shear zones both parallel and conjugate to the main SJSZ in order to accommodate the regional transpressive stresses. Different deformation phases within the study area were dated by SIMS (zircon U-Pb), ID-TIMS (titanite U-Pb) and 40Ar/39Ar (pseudotachylyte wholerock) methods. The first deformation phase within the ca. 1.88 Ga rocks of the study area is dated at ca. 1.85 Ga, and the shear zone was reactivated twice within the ductile regime (at ca. 1.83 Ga and 1.79 Ga), during which the strain was successively increasingly partitioned into the main SJSZ and the minor shear zones. The age determinations suggest that the orogenic processes within the study area did not occur in a temporal continuum; instead, the metamorphic zircon rims and titanites show distinct, 10-20 Ma long breaks in deformation between phases of active deformation. The results of this study further imply slow cooling of the rocks through 600-700ºC so that at 1.79 Ga, 2 the temperature was still at least 600ºC. The highest recorded metamorphic pressures are 6.4-7.1 kbar. At the late stages or soon after the last ductile phase (ca. 1.79 Ga), relatively high-T mylonites and ultramylonites were formed, witnessing extreme deformation partitioning and high strain rates. After the rocks reached lower amphibolite facies to amphibolite-greenschist facies transitional conditions (ca. 500-550ºC), they cooled rapidly, probably due to crustal uplift and exhumation. The shear zone was reactivated at least once within the semi-brittle to brittle regime between ca. 1.79 Ga and 1.58 Ga, as evidenced by cataclasites and pseudotachylytes. In summary, the results of this study suggest that the Sottunga-Jurmo shear zone (and the South Finland shear zone) defines a major crustal discontinuity, and played a central role in accommodating the regional stresses during and after the Svecofennian orogeny.

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Diplomityössä on haettu tietoa lasikuitupinnoitteiden ja vinyyliesterihartsien yhteensopivuudesta ja sen testaamisesta. Lujitemuovikomposiitissa hartsi sitoo materiaalit yhteen ja antaa rakenteelle kemiallisen kestävyyden, sitkeyden ja välittää kuormitukset kuitujen kannettaviksi. Vaadittavan lujuuden rakenteelle antaa lasikuitu. Se päällystetään valmistusvaiheessa pinnoiteaineella, sizingilla. Sillä on ratkaiseva merkitys hartsin ja lasikuidun väliin syntyvän rajapinnan muodostumisessa kovettumisprosessin aikana. Käytännössä rajapinnan toimivuutta ja materiaalien yhteensopivuutta tutkitaan makromekaanisilla lujuustesteillä. Menetelmät perustuvat rajapinnan leikkaus¬lujuuden määrittämiseen, mutta myös murtumamekanismeihin perustuvia testi¬menetelmiä käytetään. Mikrotason menetelmät, jotka perustuvat yksittäisen kuidun ja käytetyn hartsin välisen adheesion mittaamiseen ovat yleistyneet, mutta niistä saatujen tulosten ei ole vielä todettu riittävästi korreloivan makro¬mekaanisten lujuustestien kanssa. Työssä tutkittiin kahta eri makromekaanista testimenetelmää. Testeissä havaittiin eroja valittujen lasikuitupinnoitteiden ja vinyyliesterihartsien välillä. Hauras hartsi oli herkempi lasikuitupinnoitteen kemialle. Kun yhteensopivuus vinyyli-esterihartsin ja lasikuitupinnoitteen välillä oli huono, saatiin sekä poikittaisessa vetolujuustestissä että Mode I murtumissitkeystestissä heikko tulos. Pyyhkäisy¬elektronimikroskoopilla suoritettu mikrotason analyysi murtopinnasta vahvisti saatuja tuloksia ja se osoittautui toimivaksi menetelmäksi kuvantamaan ilmiöitä, jotka vaikuttavat yhteensopivuuteen vinyyliesterihartsin ja pinnoitetun lasikuidun välillä.

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Tässä työssä tutkittiin Ruukin valmistamista lujista Optim 700 MC Plus sekä Optim 700 QL teräksistä tehtyjen hitsattujen palkkirakenteiden vikasietoisuutta sekä murtumiskäyttäytymistä laboratoriossa suoritettujen täyden mittakaavan kokeiden avulla. Koerakenteet suunniteltiin siten, että rakenteen kylmämuovauksen sekä hitsauksen vaikutukset yhdessä rakenteen geometrian vaikutuksen kanssa heikentävät rakenteen murtumissitkeyttä rakenteeseen tehdyn teräväkärkisen alkusärön tasossa. Suunnitellussa koesarjassa varioidaan testauslämpötilan lisäksi hitsauksen lämmöntuontia sekä koerakenteeseen tehtävän alkusärön kokoa. Tässä työssä tavoitteena oli yleisesti esittää menettely hitsatun säröllisen teräsrakenteen kestävyyden arviointia varten. Optim 700 MC Plus teräksestä tehdyn koerakenteen käyttäytymistä tutkittiin laskennallisesti murtumismekaniikan avulla. Laadittujen FEM - mallien avulla laskettiin rakenteen murtumisparametrien arvot kummallekin tutkittavalle teräkselle. Optim 700 MC Plus materiaalista valmistetuille koerakenteen säröalueen rakennedetaljia vastaavalle koekappaleille suoritettiin murtumissitkeyskokeita. Murtumissitkeyskokeista saatujen tulosten avulla pystyttiin kuvaamaan täyden mittakaavan koerakenteessa olevan särön murtumiskäyttäytymistä mitoitusmenetelmissä. Koerakenteelle laskettiin tässä työssä kriittisen särökoon ja sitä vastaavan kuorman arvot perustuen rakenteen oletettuun hauraaseen, epästabiiliin sitkeään sekä plastiseen murtumiskäyttäytymiseen. Tässä työssä testattiin molemmista tutkittavista materiaaleista valmistetut täyden mittakaavan koerakenteet -40 °C lämpötilassa. Molemmat testatut rakenteet käyttäytyvät mitattujen siirtymätulosten perusteella melko hauraasti. Optim 700 MC Plus materiaalille saatujen laskentatulosten voidaan todeta testatun koekappaleen perusteella soveltuvan hauraasti käyttäytyvän rakenteen mitoitukseen.

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Original sludge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) usually has a poor dewaterability. Conventionally, mechanical dewatering methods are used to increase the dry solids (DS) content of the sludge. However, sludge dewatering is an important economic factor in the operation of WWTPs, high water content in the final sludge cake is commonly related to an increase in transport and disposal costs. Electro‐dewatering could be a potential technique to reduce the water content of the final sludge cake, but the parameters affecting the performance of electro‐dewatering and the quality of the resulting sludge cake, as well as removed water, are not sufficiently well known. In this research, non‐pressure and pressure‐driven experiments were set up to investigate the effect of various parameters and experimental strategies on electro‐dewatering. Migration behaviour of organic compounds and metals was also studied. Application of electrical field significantly improved the dewatering performance in comparison to experiments without electric field. Electro‐dewatering increased the DS content of the sludge from 15% to 40 % in non‐pressure applications and from 8% to 41% in pressure‐driven applications. DS contents were significantly higher than typically obtained with mechanical dewatering techniques in wastewater treatment plant. The better performance of the pressure‐driven dewatering was associated to a higher current density at the beginning and higher electric field strength later on in the experiments. The applied voltage was one of the major parameters affecting dewatering time, water removal rate and DS content of the sludge cake. By decreasing the sludge loading rate, higher electrical field strength was established between the electrodes, which has a positive effect on an increase in DS content of the final sludge cake. However interrupted voltage application had anegative impact on dewatering in this study, probably because the off‐times were too long. Other factors affecting dewatering performance were associated to the original sludge characteristics and sludge conditioning. Anaerobic digestion of the sludge with high pH buffering capacity, polymer addition and freeze/thaw conditioning had a positive impact on dewatering. The impact of pH on electro‐dewatering was related to the surface charge of the particles measured as zeta‐potential. One of the differences between electro‐dewatering and mechanical dewatering technologies is that electro‐dewatering actively removes ionic compounds from the sludge. In this study, dissolution and migration of organic compounds (such as shortchain fatty acids), macro metals (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe) and trace metals (Ni, Mn, Zn, Cr) was investigated. The migration of the metals depended on the fractionation and electrical field strength. These compounds may have both negative and positive impacts on the reuse and recycling of the sludge and removed water. Based on the experimental results of this study, electro‐dewatering process can be optimized in terms of dewatering time, desired DS content, power consumption and chemical usage.

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Seloste artikkelista: Nieminen, M., Ahti, E., Koivusalo, H., Mattson, T., Sarkkola, S. & Laurén, A. / Export of suspended solids and dissolved elements from peatland areas after ditch network maintenance in south-central Finland. Silva Fennica 44 (2010) : 1, 39-49.

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The offset printing process is complex and involves the meeting of two essentially complex materials, printing ink and paper, upon which the final product is formed. It can therefore be expected that a multitude of chemical and physical interactions and mechanisms take place at the ink-paper interface. Interactions between ink and paper are of interest to both the papermakers and ink producers, as they wish to achieve better quality in the final product. The objective of this work is to clarify the combined influence of paper coating structure, printing ink and fountain solution on ink setting and the problems related to ink setting. A further aim is to identify the mechanisms that influence ink setting problems, and to be able to counteract them by changing properties of the coating layer or by changing the properties of the ink. The work carried out for this thesis included use of many techniques ranging from standard paper and printability tests to advanced optical techniques for detection of ink filaments during ink levelling. Modern imaging methods were applied for assessment of ink filament remain sizes and distribution of ink components inside pigment coating layers. Gravimetric filtration method and assessment of print rub using Ink-Surface-Interaction-Tester (ISIT) were utilized to study the influence of ink properties on ink setting. The chemical interactions were observed with the help of modified thin layer chromatography and contact angle measurements using both conventional and high speed imaging. The results of the papers in this thesis link the press operational parameters to filament sizes and show the influence of these parameters to filament size distribution. The relative importance between the press operation parameters was shown to vary. The size distribution of filaments is important in predicting the ink setting behaviour, which was highlighted by the dynamic gloss and ink setting studies. Prediction of ink setting behaviour was also further improved by use of separate permeability factors for different ink types in connection to filtration equations. The roles of ink components were studied in connection to ink absorption and mechanism of print rub. Total solids content and ratio of linseed oil to mineral oil were found to determine the degree of print rub on coated papers. Wax addition improved print rub resistance, but would not decrease print rub as much as lowering the total solids content in the ink. Linseed oil was shown to absorb into pigment coating pores by mechanism of adsorption to pore walls, which highlights the need for sufficient pore surface area for improved chromatographic separation of ink components. These results should help press operators, suppliers of printing presses, papermakers and suppliers to papermakers, to better understand the material and operating conditions of the press as it relates to various print quality issues. Even though paper is in competition with electronic media, high quality printed products are still in demand. The results should provide useful information for this segment of the industry.

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Diplomityön tarkoitus oli selvittää verhopäällystyspastoille sopivia analyysimenetelmiä. Verhopäällystyksessä onnistunut päällystystapahtuma vaatii venymäviskositeetin ja pintajännityksen hyvää hallintaa. Kirjallisuusosassa käsiteltiin verhopäällystystä, verhopäällystyspastojen koostumusta, reologiaa ja pintajännitystä. Kirjallisuusosassa käsiteltiin lisäksi verhopäällystyspastojen reologian ja pintajännityksen mittaamiseen soveltuvia mittausmenetelmiä. Verhopäällystyksen luonteen vuoksi kirjallisuusosassa syvennyttiin venymäviskositeetin ja dynaamisen pintajännityksen mittaamiseen tarkoitettuihin menetelmiin. Kokeellisessa osassa tutkittiin päällystyspastasarjojen reologiaa ja pintajännitystä verhopäällystystä varten. Osaan päällystyspastoista luotiin venymäviskositeettia ja osasta laskettiin pintajännitystä. Venymäviskositeetin mittaamista varten työssä käytettiin ACAV A2 -reometriin liitettyjä teräsreikälevyjä. Dynaamisen pintajännityksen mittaamista varten työssä käytettiin KSV BPA-800P -pintajännitysmittaria. ACAV A2 -reometriin liitettyjen teräsreikälevyjen (reiän sisähalkaisija 0,5 tai 0,7 mm) avulla mitattiin venymäviskositeettia kuvaavia Eulerin lukuarvoja onnistuneesti suurilla kiintoainepitoisuuksilla (50, 60 tai 65 p %). Erikoispaksuntajan määrää lisäämällä onnistuttiin luomaan huomattavaa venymäviskositeettia. Kiintoainepitoisuuden kasvaessa kasvoi myös venymäviskositeetti. Tavanomaisille paksuntajille mitattiin hieman kohonneita venymäviskositeetteja verrattuna referenssipäällystyspastaan. Pigmenttikoostumuksella (kalsiumkarbonaatti/kaoliini) ei näyttänyt olevan vaikutusta venymäviskositeettiin, tai vaikutus oli suhteellisen pieni. Dynaamisen pintajännityksen mittaamista varten käytössä ollut KSV BPA-800P -pintajännitysmittari ei toiminut luotettavasti, vaikka näytteitä laimennettiin. Kiintoainepitoisuudessa 10 p-% olleilla laimennoksilla saavutettiin analysoinnin kannalta parhaat tulokset. Tuloksista saatiin kuitenkin viitteitä, että kyseinen mittari voisi olla potentiaalinen menetelmä dynaamisen pintajännityksen mittaamiseksi.

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Käytetyn voiteluöljyn regeneroinnissa muodostuu prosessivettä useista lähteistä. Tehokas päästöjenhallinta on yksi tärkeimmistä tavoitteista regenerointilaitoksen operoinnissa ja sen takia sitä tulee kehittää jatkuvasti entistä paremmaksi. Tavoitteisiin pääsemiseksi on oleellista tunnistaa vesienkäsittelyprosessin laadullinen massatase ja laadunvaihtelut ajotilanteiden mukaan. Työssä tutkitaan ja analysoidaan veden sisältämiä epäpuhtauksia sekä kirjallisuuslähteiden perusteella, että standardimenetelmillä ja modifioiduilla menetelmillä, joilla on akkreditointi. Analyysituloksista muodostetaan laadullinen massatase, josta nähdään epäpuhtauksien ja niitä kuvaavien parametrien kuormitukset kussakin prosessivesivirrassa. Tulosten perusteella arvioidaan nykyisen vesienkäsittelyn tehokkuutta, sen säätömahdollisuuksia ja kehitystarvetta. Tarkastelun ulkopuolelle kuitenkin jätetään vesienkäsittelystä ulosjohdettavan prosessiveden puhdistuslaitos. Tutkimusten perusteella regenerointilaitoksessa muodostuvien prosessivesien epäpuhtaudet koostuvat öljystä, BTEX-yhdisteistä, fenoliyhdisteistä, liuottimista, polttoaineiden ja voiteluöljyjen lisäaineista, typpi- ja rikkiyhdisteistä, metalliyhdisteistä sekä kiintoaineesta. Öljy jakautuu kevyisiin (C5-C10), keskiraskaisiin (C10-21) ja raskaisiin (C21-40) jakeisiin. Vesienkäsittelyssä suurin osa öljystä ja epäpuhtauksista saadaan erottumaan vedestä, jolloin puhdistuslaitokselle päätyy jäämäpitoisuudet öljyä, haihtuvia yhdisteitä sekä muita epäpuhtauksia. Puhdistuslaitosta kuormittavat eniten liuenneet orgaaniset yhdisteet sekä korkeaa kemiallista hapenkulutusta aiheuttavat epäorgaaniset yhdisteet (suolat), joiden erottamista prosessivesistä on syytä tulevaisuudessa kehittää.

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Työn tarkoituksena oli etsiä mahdollisia kohteita sellutehtaan veden käytön vähen-tämiseksi. Analyysien avulla selvitettiin voidaanko havaittujen kohteiden tällä hetkellä menetettyjä vesivirtoja käyttää uudelleen. Lopuksi arvioitiin miten kierrä-tettävät vedet vaikuttaisivat raakaveden laatuun, mikäli ne yhdistettäisiin tämän joukkoon. Veden käytön vähentämiskohteita etsittiin tutkimalla tehtaan prosessi-kaavioita osastokohtaisesti sekä selvittämällä näin havaittuja kohteita osastoilla. Työn kokeellinen osa koostui vesianalyyseistä. Vesianalyyseissä määritettiin seu-raavat arvot sellutehtaalle tulevasta vedestä: sameus (FTU), kiintoaine, sähkönjoh-tavuus, pH, CODCr, BOD7ATU, kokonaisfosfori P, Mn, Cl, K, Ca, Mg ja AOX. Nämä tehtiin valituista kohteista havaituista tällä hetkellä tehtaalta pois johdetuista mutta mahdollisesti kierrätettävistä vesistä. Työn tuloksien perusteella havaittiin, että seuraavissa tarkasteluun valituissa koh-teissa vedet olivat hyvin puhtaita ja talteen otettavia kierrätykseen. Näitä olivat savukaasupesurin vedet, sekundäärilauhdesäiliön vedet sekä tiivistevedet. Haih-duttamon lämminvesisäiliön sekä kuivauskone 4 kiertovesitornin vedet olivat hieman likaantuneet mutta hyvin kierrätettävissä. Koivulinjan D0-vaiheen, havu-linjan D1-vaiheen sekä kuivauskone 4 lajittamon vesivirtoja ei likaantumisen vuoksi kannattanut kerätä hyötykäyttöön.

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This thesis presents an approach for formulating and validating a space averaged drag model for coarse mesh simulations of gas-solid flows in fluidized beds using the two-fluid model. Proper modeling for fluid dynamics is central in understanding any industrial multiphase flow. The gas-solid flows in fluidized beds are heterogeneous and usually simulated with the Eulerian description of phases. Such a description requires the usage of fine meshes and small time steps for the proper prediction of its hydrodynamics. Such constraint on the mesh and time step size results in a large number of control volumes and long computational times which are unaffordable for simulations of large scale fluidized beds. If proper closure models are not included, coarse mesh simulations for fluidized beds do not give reasonable results. The coarse mesh simulation fails to resolve the mesoscale structures and results in uniform solids concentration profiles. For a circulating fluidized bed riser, such predicted profiles result in a higher drag force between the gas and solid phase and also overestimated solids mass flux at the outlet. Thus, there is a need to formulate the closure correlations which can accurately predict the hydrodynamics using coarse meshes. This thesis uses the space averaging modeling approach in the formulation of closure models for coarse mesh simulations of the gas-solid flow in fluidized beds using Geldart group B particles. In the analysis of formulating the closure correlation for space averaged drag model, the main parameters for the modeling were found to be the averaging size, solid volume fraction, and distance from the wall. The closure model for the gas-solid drag force was formulated and validated for coarse mesh simulations of the riser, which showed the verification of this modeling approach. Coarse mesh simulations using the corrected drag model resulted in lowered values of solids mass flux. Such an approach is a promising tool in the formulation of appropriate closure models which can be used in coarse mesh simulations of large scale fluidized beds.

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The major type of non-cellulosic polysaccharides (hemicelluloses) in softwoods, the partly acetylated galactoglucomannans (GGMs), which comprise about 15% of spruce wood, have attracted growing interest because of their potential to become high-value products with applications in many areas. The main objective of this work was to explore the possibilities to extract galactoglucomannans in native, polymeric form in high yield from spruce wood with pressurised hot-water, and to obtain a deeper understanding of the process chemistry involved. Spruce (Picea abies) chips and ground wood particles were extracted using an accelerated solvent extractor (ASE) in the temperature range 160 – 180°C. Detailed chemical analyses were done on both the water extracts and the wood residues. As much as 80 – 90% of the GGMs in spruce wood, i.e. about 13% based on the original wood, could be extracted from ground spruce wood with pure water at 170 – 180°C with an extraction time of 60 min. GGMs comprised about 75% of the extracted carbohydrates and about 60% of the total dissolved solids. Other substances in the water extracts were xylans, arabinogalactans, pectins, lignin and acetic acid. The yields from chips were only about 60% of that from ground wood. Both the GGMs and other non-cellulosic polysaccharides were extensively hydrolysed at severe extraction conditions when pH dropped to the level of 3.5. Addition of sodium bicarbonate increased the yields of polymeric GGMs at low additions, 2.5 – 5 mM, where the end pH remained around 3.9. However, at higher addition levels the yields decreased, mainly because the acetyl groups in GGMs were split off, leading to a low solubility of GGMs. Extraction with buffered water in the pH range 3.8 – 4.4 gave similar yields as with plain water, but gave a higher yield of polymeric GGMs. Moreover, at these pH levels the hydrolysis of acetyl groups in GGMs was significantly inhibited. It was concluded that hot-water extraction of polymeric GGMs in good yields (up to 8% of wood) demands appropriate control of pH, in a narrow range about 4. These results were supported by a study of hydrolysis of GGM at constant pH in the range of 3.8 – 4.2 where a kinetic model for degradation of GGM was developed. The influence of wood particle size on hot-water extraction was studied with particles in the range of 0.1 – 2 mm. The smallest particles (< 0.1 mm) gave 20 – 40% higher total yield than the coarsest particles (1.25 – 2 mm). The difference was greatest at short extraction times. The results indicated that extraction of GGMs and other polysaccharides is limited mainly by the mass transfer in the fibre wall, and for coarse wood particles also in the wood matrix. Spruce sapwood, heartwood and thermomechnical pulp were also compared, but only small differences in yields and composition of extracts were found. Two methods for isolation and purification of polymeric GGMs, i.e. membrane filtration and precipitation in ethanol-water, were compared. Filtration through a series of membranes with different pore sizes separated GGMs of different molar masses, from polymers to oligomers. Polysaccharides with molar mass higher than 4 kDa were precipitated in ethanol-water. GGMs comprised about 80% of the precipitated polysaccharides. Other polysaccharides were mainly arabinoglucuronoxylans and pectins. The ethanol-precipitated GGMs were by 13C NMR spectroscopy verified to be very similar to GGMs extracted from spruce wood in low yield at a much lower temperature, 90°C. The obtained large body of experimental data could be utilised for further kinetic and economic calculations to optimise technical hot-water extractionof softwoods.

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Brittleness is a well-known material characteristic but brittleness of paper is vaguely covered. The objective of this thesis was to characterize the phenomenon and causes around brittleness of paper and to clarify if it is a measurable property. Brittleness of paper was approached from the perspectives of paper physics and paper mills. Brittleness is a property of dry paper and it causes problems at the finishing stages of paper machine. According to paper physics, brittle materials fail in the elastic regime, while ductile materials can locally accumulate a plastic deformation prior to the fracture and they are often able to withstand higher stresses. Brittleness of paper is vastly affected by the surrounding conditions: paper as a hygroscopic material tries to get to the equilibrium. It is also affected by the quality of the pulp used. Measurement techniques can be divided into two categories: based on the viscoelastic behavior of paper and on the exposure to the mechanical stress of sort. The experimental part of the thesis was based on the trials with brittle and non-brittle mill-made LWC papers. It is divided into three parts: strength testing of the brittle and non-brittle papers, analysis of the conditions that may contribute the brittleness and the experimental methods to evaluate brittle behavior. The strength measurements confirmed the influence of the moisture content, but only tensile energy absorption and the fracture toughness measurements provided modest differences between the brittle and non-brittle papers. Versatile analysis of the possible contributing factors resulted into speculation, while the brittle papers contained higher amount of starch, triglycerides and steryl esters. The experimental research proved that the formation, the sensory impression and the variation of local strains may contain the crucial information of paper brittleness.

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In this study, cantilever-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (CEPAS) was applied in different drug detection schemes. The study was divided into two different applications: trace detection of vaporized drugs and drug precursors in the gas-phase, and detection of cocaine abuse in hair. The main focus, however, was the study of hair samples. In the gas-phase, methyl benzoate, a hydrolysis product of cocaine hydrochloride, and benzyl methyl ketone (BMK), a precursor of amphetamine and methamphetamine were investigated. In the solid-phase, hair samples from cocaine overdose patients were measured and compared to a drug-free reference group. As hair consists mostly of long fibrous proteins generally called keratin, proteins from fingernails and saliva were also studied for comparison. Different measurement setups were applied in this study. Gas measurements were carried out using quantum cascade lasers (QLC) as a source in the photoacoustic detection. Also, an external cavity (EC) design was used for a broader tuning range. Detection limits of 3.4 particles per billion (ppb) for methyl benzoate and 26 ppb for BMK in 0.9 s were achieved with the EC-QCL PAS setup. The achieved detection limits are sufficient for realistic drug detection applications. The measurements from drug overdose patients were carried out using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) PAS. The drug-containing hair samples and drug-free samples were both measured with the FTIR-PAS setup, and the measured spectra were analyzed statistically with principal component analysis (PCA). The two groups were separated by their spectra with PCA and proper spectral pre-processing. To improve the method, ECQCL measurements of the hair samples, and studies using photoacoustic microsampling techniques, were performed. High quality, high-resolution spectra with a broad tuning range were recorded from a single hair fiber. This broad tuning range of an EC-QCL has not previously been used in the photoacoustic spectroscopy of solids. However, no drug detection studies were performed with the EC-QCL solid-phase setup.