Young Registered Nurses’ Intent to Leave the Profession in Finland - A Mixed-Method Study

The purpose of this study was to examine and expand understanding concerning young Finnish registered nurses (RN) with an intention to leave the profession and the related variables, specifically when that intention has emerged before the age of 30. The overall goal of the study was to develop a conceptual model in relation to young RNs’ intention to leave the profession. Suggestions for policymakers, nurse leaders and nurse managers are presented for how to retain more young RNs in the nursing workforce. Suggestions for future nursing research are also provided. Phase I consists of two sequential integrative literature reviews of 75 empirical articles concerning nurses’ intention to leave the profession. In phase II, data had been collected as part of the Nurses’ Early Exit (NEXT) study, using the BQ-12 structured postal questionnaire. A total of 147 young RNs participated in the study. The data were analysed with statistical methods. In phase III, firstly, an in-depth interpretive case study was conducted in order to understand how young RNs explain and make sense of their intention to leave the profession. The data in this study consisted of longitudinal career stories by three young RNs. The data was analysed by using narrative holistic-content and thematic methods. Secondly, a total of 15 young RNs were interviewed in order to explore in-depth their experiences concerning organizational turnover and their intent to leave the profession. The data was analysed using conventional content analysis. Based on earlier research, empirical research on the young RNs intention to leave the profession is scarce. Nurses’ intention to leave the profession has mainly been studied with quantitative descriptive studies, conducted with survey questionnaires. Furthermore, the quality of previous studies varies considerably. Moreover, nurses’ intention to leave the profession seems to be driven by a number of variables. According to the survey study, 26% of young RNs had often considered giving up nursing completely and starting a different kind of job during the course of the previous year. Many different variables were associated with an intention to leave the profession (e.g. personal burnout, job dissatisfaction). According to the in-depth inquiries, poor nursing practice environments and a nursing career as a ‘second-best’ or serendipitous career choice were themes associated with young RNs’ intention to leave the profession. In summary, young RNs intention to leave the profession is a complex phenomenon with multiple associated variables. These findings suggest that policymakers, nurse leaders and nurse managers should enable improvements in nursing practice environments in order to retain more young RNs. These improvements can include, for example, adequate staffing levels, balanced nursing workloads, measures to reduce work-related stress as well as possibilities for advancement and development. Young RNs’ requirements to provide high-quality and ethical nursing care must be recognized in society and health-care organizations. Moreover, sufficient mentoring and orientation programmes should be provided for all graduate RNs. Future research is needed into whether the motive for choosing a nursing career affects the length of the tenure in the profession. Both quantitative and in-depth research is needed for the comprehensive development of nursing-turnover research.

Application of cerium oxide thin films grown by atomic layer deposition for soot removal

The objective of the thesis is to study cerium oxide thin films grown by the atomic layer deposition (ALD) for soot removal. Cerium oxide is one of the most important heterogeneous catalysts and can be used in particulate filters and sensors in a diesel exhaust pipe. Its redox/oxidation properties are a key factor in soot oxidation. Thus, the cerium oxide coating can help to keep particulate filters and sensors clean permanently. The literature part of the thesis focuses on the soot removal, introducing the origin and structure of soot, reviewing emissions standards for diesel particulate matter, and presenting methods and catalysts for soot removal. In the experimental part the optimal ALD conditions for cerium oxide were found, the structural properties of cerium oxide thin films were analyzed, and the catalytic activity of the cerium oxide for soot oxidation was investigated. Studying ALD growth conditions of cerium oxide films and determining their critical thickness range are important to maximize the catalytic performance operating at comparatively low temperature. It was found that the cerium oxide film deposited at 300 °C with 2000 ALD cycles had the highest catalytic activity. Although the activity was still moderate and did not decrease the soot oxidation temperature enough for a real-life application. The cerium oxide thin film deposited at 300 °C has a different crystal structure, surface morphology and elemental composition with a higher Ce3+ concentration compared to the films deposited at lower temperatures. The different properties of the cerium oxide thin film deposited at 300 °C increase the catalytic activity most likely due to higher surface area and addition of the oxygen vacancies.

α-Pinene oxide and verbenol oxide isomerizations over heterogeneous catalysts

Terpenes are a valuable natural resource for the production of fine chemicals. Turpentine, obtained from biomass and also as a side product of softwood industry, is rich in monoterpenes such as α-pinene and β-pinene, which are widely used as raw materials in the synthesis of flavors, fragrances and pharmaceutical compounds. The rearrangement of their epoxides has been thoroughly studied in recent years, as a method to obtain compounds which are further used in the fine chemical industry. The industrially most desired products of α-pinene oxide isomerization are campholenic aldehyde and trans-carveol. Campholenic aldehyde is an intermediate for the manufacture of sandalwood-like fragrances such as santalol. Trans-carveol is an expensive constituent of the Valencia orange essence oil used in perfume bases and food flavor composition. Furthermore it has been found to exhibit chemoprevention of mammary carcinogenesis. A wide range of iron and ceria supported catalysts were prepared, characterized and tested for α-pinene oxide isomerization in order to selective synthesis of above mentioned products. The highest catalytic activity in the preparation of campholenic aldehyde over iron modified catalysts using toluene as a solvent at 70 °C (total conversion of α-pinene oxide with a selectivity of 66 % to the desired aldehyde) was achieved in the presence of Fe-MCM-41. Furthermore, Fe-MCM-41 catalyst was successfully regenerated without deterioration of catalytic activity and selectivity. The most active catalysts in the synthesis of trans-carveol from α-pinene oxide over iron and ceria modified catalysts in N,N-dimethylacetamide as a solvent at 140 °C (total conversion of α-pinene oxide with selectivity 43 % to trans-carveol) were Fe-Beta-300 and Ce-Si-MCM-41. These catalysts were further tested for an analogous reaction, namely verbenol oxide isomerization. Verbenone is another natural organic compound which can be found in a variety of plants or synthesized by allylic oxidation of α-pinene. An interesting product which is synthesized from verbenone is (1R,2R,6S)-3-methyl-6-(prop-1-en-2-yl)cyclohex-3-ene-1,2-diol. It has been discovered that this diol possesses potent anti-Parkinson activity. The most effective way leading to desired diol starts from verbenone and includes three stages: epoxidation of verbenone to verbenone oxide, reduction of verbenone oxide and subsequent isomerization of obtained verbenol oxide, which is analogous to isomerization of α-pinene oxide. In the research focused on the last step of these synthesis, high selectivity (82 %) to desired diol was achieved in the isomerization of verbenol oxide at a conversion level of 96 % in N,N-dimethylacetamide at 140 °C using iron modified zeolite, Fe-Beta-300. This reaction displayed surprisingly high selectivity, which has not been achieved yet. The possibility of the reuse of heterogeneous catalysts without activity loss was demonstrated.

Reduction of nitrogen oxide emissions in lime kiln

Different nitrogen oxide removal technologies for rotary lime kiln are studied in this thesis, the main focus being in commercial technologies. Post-combustion methods are investigated in more detail as potential possible NOx removal with combustion methods in rotary lime kiln is more limited or primary methods are already in use. However, secondary methods as NOx scrubber, SNCR or SCR technologies are not listed as the Best Available Technologies defined by European Union. BAT technologies for NOx removal in lime kiln are (1) Optimised combustion and combustion control, (2) Good mixing of fuel and air, (3) Low-NOx burner and (4) Fuel selection/low-N fuel. SNCR method is the most suitable technique for NOx removal in lime kiln when NOx removal from 50 % to 70 % is required in case primary methods are already in use or cannot be applied. In higher removal cases ammonia slip is an issue in SNCR. By using SCR better NOx reduction can be achieved but issues with catalyst materials are expected to arise because of the dust and sulphur dioxide which leads to catalyst poison formation in lower flue gas temperatures. NOx scrubbing has potential when simultaneous NOx and SO2 removal is required. The challenge is that NO cannot be scrubbed directly, but once it is oxidized to NO2 or further scrubbing can be performed as the solubility of NO2 is higher. Commercial installations have not been made regarding SNCR, SCR or NOx scrubbing regarding rotary lime kiln. For SNCR and SCR the closest references come from cement industry.

Hydrogen Sensor Application of Anodic Titanium Oxide Nanostructures

Hydrogen (H2) fuel cells have been considered a promising renewable energy source. The recent growth of H2 economy has required highly sensitive, micro-sized and cost-effective H2 sensor for monitoring concentrations and alerting to leakages due to the flammability and explosiveness of H2 Titanium dioxide (TiO2) made by electrochemical anodic oxidation has shown great potential as a H2 sensing material. The aim of this thesis is to develop highly sensitive H2 sensor using anodized TiO2. The sensor enables mass production and integration with microelectronics by preparing the oxide layer on suitable substrate. Morphology, elemental composition, crystal phase, electrical properties and H2 sensing properties of TiO2 nanostructures prepared on Ti foil, Si and SiO2/Si substrates were characterized. Initially, vertically oriented TiO2 nanotubes as the sensing material were obtained by anodizing Ti foil. The morphological properties of tubes could be tailored by varying the applied voltages of the anodization. The transparent oxide layer creates an interference color phenomena with white light illumination on the oxide surface. This coloration effect can be used to predict the morphological properties of the TiO2 nanostructures. The crystal phase transition from amorphous to anatase or rutile, or the mixture of anatase and rutile was observed with varying heat treatment temperatures. However, the H2 sensing properties of TiO2 nanotubes at room temperature were insufficient. H2 sensors using TiO2 nanostructures formed on Si and SiO2/Si substrates were demonstrated. In both cases, a Ti layer deposited on the substrates by a DC magnetron sputtering method was successfully anodized. A mesoporous TiO2 layer obtained on Si by anodization in an aqueous electrolyte at 5°C showed diode behavior, which was influenced by the work function difference of Pt metal electrodes and the oxide layer. The sensor enabled the detection of H2 (20-1000 ppm) at low operating temperatures (50–140°C) in ambient air. A Pd decorated tubular TiO2 layer was prepared on metal electrodes patterned SiO2/Si wafer by anodization in an organic electrolyte at 5°C. The sensor showed significantly enhanced H2 sensing properties, and detected hydrogen in the range of a few ppm with fast response/recovery time. The metal electrodes placed under the oxide layer also enhanced the mechanical tolerance of the sensor. The concept of TiO2 nanostructures on alternative substrates could be a prospect for microelectronic applications and mass production of gas sensors. The gas sensor properties can be further improved by modifying material morphologies and decorating it with catalytic materials.