Mikro-ORC-energianmuuntimen suorituskyvyn todentaminen ja kaupallistaminen

Tässä työssä esitellään yleisesti ORC-prosessi, sen toimintaperiaate ja käyttökohteet. Työn tavoitteena oli todentaa diesel-moottorin savukaasujen lämpöenergian sähköenergiaksi muuntavan mikro-ORC-energianmuuntimen suorituskyky. Suorituskyky pyrittiin toteamaan laskemalla laboratoriomittauksista saadusta datasta koelaitoksen sähköntuotannon hyötysuhde ja vertaamalla sitä mallinnuksessa laskettuun hyötysuhteeseen. Esitys käytännöstä suorituskyvyn todentamiseen kuuluu työn sisältöön. Koelaitoksen suorituskykyä ei pystytty toteamaan turbogeneraattoriin liittyvien ongelmien vuoksi. Tarkasteltavaksi tähän työhön jäi koelaitoksen suorituskykyyn olennaisesti liittyvien laitoskomponenttien toiminta niille tyypillisten mittausdatasta laskettujen tunnuslukujen kautta. Koelaitoksella käytettyjen lämmönsiirrinten todettiin olevan kykeneviä siirtämään tarpeeksi lämpöenergiaa 130 kW jarruteholla toimivan diesel-moottorin savukaasujen lämmöstä sähköenergian tuotantoon. Laitoksen kaupallistamista tarkasteltiin asiakkaan ja valmistajan näkökulmasta. Tarkasteluun sisältyi katsaus kaupalliseen versioon kuuluvista ominaisuuksista, alihankinnasta ja säädöksistä, jotka laitoksen on täytettävä markkinoille päästäkseen.

Production of magnesium carbonates from serpentinites for CO2 mineral sequestration : optimisation towards industrial application

Global warming is one of the most alarming problems of this century. Initial scepticism concerning its validity is currently dwarfed by the intensification of extreme weather events whilst the gradual arising level of anthropogenic CO2 is pointed out as its main driver. Most of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions come from large point sources (heat and power production and industrial processes) and the continued use of fossil fuels requires quick and effective measures to meet the world’s energy demand whilst (at least) stabilizing CO2 atmospheric levels. The framework known as Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) – or Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) – comprises a portfolio of technologies applicable to large‐scale GHG sources for preventing CO2 from entering the atmosphere. Amongst them, CO2 capture and mineralisation (CCM) presents the highest potential for CO2 sequestration as the predicted carbon storage capacity (as mineral carbonates) far exceeds the estimated levels of the worldwide identified fossil fuel reserves. The work presented in this thesis aims at taking a step forward to the deployment of an energy/cost effective process for simultaneous capture and storage of CO2 in the form of thermodynamically stable and environmentally friendly solid carbonates. R&D work on the process considered here began in 2007 at Åbo Akademi University in Finland. It involves the processing of magnesium silicate minerals with recyclable ammonium salts for extraction of magnesium at ambient pressure and 400‐440⁰C, followed by aqueous precipitation of magnesium in the form of hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, and finally Mg(OH)2 carbonation in a pressurised fluidized bed reactor at ~510⁰C and ~20 bar PCO2 to produce high purity MgCO3. Rock material taken from the Hitura nickel mine, Finland, and serpentinite collected from Bragança, Portugal, were tested for magnesium extraction with both ammonium sulphate and bisulphate (AS and ABS) for determination of optimal operation parameters, primarily: reaction time, reactor type and presence of moisture. Typical efficiencies range from 50 to 80% of magnesium extraction at 350‐450⁰C. In general ABS performs better than AS showing comparable efficiencies at lower temperature and reaction times. The best experimental results so far obtained include 80% magnesium extraction with ABS at 450⁰C in a laboratory scale rotary kiln and 70% Mg(OH)2 carbonation in the PFB at 500⁰C, 20 bar CO2 pressure for 15 minutes. The extraction reaction with ammonium salts is not at all selective towards magnesium. Other elements like iron, nickel, chromium, copper, etc., are also co‐extracted. Their separation, recovery and valorisation are addressed as well and found to be of great importance. The assessment of the exergetic performance of the process was carried out using Aspen Plus® software and pinch analysis technology. The choice of fluxing agent and its recovery method have a decisive sway in the performance of the process: AS is recovered by crystallisation and in general the whole process requires more exergy (2.48–5.09 GJ/tCO2sequestered) than ABS (2.48–4.47 GJ/tCO2sequestered) when ABS is recovered by thermal decomposition. However, the corrosive nature of molten ABS and operational problems inherent to thermal regeneration of ABS prohibit this route. Regeneration of ABS through addition of H2SO4 to AS (followed by crystallisation) results in an overall negative exergy balance (mainly at the expense of low grade heat) but will flood the system with sulphates. Although the ÅA route is still energy intensive, its performance is comparable to conventional CO2 capture methods using alkanolamine solvents. An energy‐neutral process is dependent on the availability and quality of nearby waste heat and economic viability might be achieved with: magnesium extraction and carbonation levels ≥ 90%, the processing of CO2‐containing flue gases (eliminating the expensive capture step) and production of marketable products.

Matalalämpötilaisten jätelämpövirtojen hyödyntäminen lämpöpumpuilla: Case Energiaväylä

Hyvinkään Sahanmäen teollisuusalueella tarkastellaan mahdollisuutta hyödyntää Saint Gobain Isoverin lasivillatehtaalla syntyvää ylijäämälämpöä alueen yritysten lämmittämiseen. Hukkalämpöä on tarkoitus ottaa talteen lauhduttamalla savukaasuihin sitoutunutta vesihöyryä ja siirtää lauhtumisessa vapautuva lämpö matalalämpötilaiseen verkkoon, Energiaväylään. Verkkoon liittyviin kohteisiin asennetaan lämpöpumput, joiden avulla kohteet hyödyntävät verkosta saatavaa lämpöä. Työssä lasketaan Energiaväylästä potentiaalisesti saatava lämpöteho ja sen riittävyys asiakkaille. Lasketaan myös lämpö- ja painehäviöt sekä pumppauskustannukset. Lisäksi määritetään verkkoon liittyvien yritysten saavuttamat kustannussäästöt perustuen niiden lämpöenergiankulutukseen, sekä hankkeen kokonaiskannattavuus. Työ ei kuvaa todellista tilannetta tarkasti, vaan perustuu lukuisiin oletuksiin ja arvioihin. Työn tuloksia voidaan hyödyntää kannattavuuden arvioinnissa, mutta niiden perusteella ei voida tehdä investointipäätöksiä. Tehtyjen oletuksien perusteella kohteet saavuttaisivat yhteensä noin 1,22 milj. euron vuosittaiset säästöt vaihtamalla maakaasulämmityksen Energiaväylään. Hanke on mahdollisesti kannattava viiden vuoden takaisinmaksuajalla. Kannattavuus riippuu kuitenkin oleellisesti lämpöpumppujen asennuskustannuksista, jotka tulee arvioida erikseen kullekin kohteelle.

Energy efficiency of glassmaking production

Master’s thesis Energy efficiency of glassmaking production gives description of glassmaking production and possible energy saving measures. Due to the high electricity and fuel prices the problem of rational energy utilization rises sharply. In addition the environmental issues also require a great attention. This work represented the feasible increasing of the furnace efficiency as the most productive activity. Thesis also provides a detail description of utilizing waste heat boiler. Also possible boiler characteristics are calculated and represented at the end of the thesis. As well as brief description of the feasibility of using this method of energy saving. The solution of this problem has a huge importance. Due to the increasing of energy costs and limits of raw materials, glassmaking industry should overcome on high efficiency operation mode. Especially, if such measures is making a significant contribution in the safety of environment.

Characterisation of waste for combustion : with special reference to the role of zinc

Waste combustion has gone from being a volume reducing discarding-method to an energy recovery process for unwanted material that cannot be reused or recycled. Different fractions of waste are used as fuel today, such as; municipal solid waste, refuse derived fuel, and solid recovered fuel. Furthermore, industrial waste, normally a mixture between commercial waste and building and demolition waste, is common, either as separate fuels or mixed with, for example, municipal solid waste. Compared to fossil or biomass fuels, waste mixtures are extremely heterogeneous, making it a complicated fuel. Differences in calorific values, ash content, moisture content, and changing levels of elements, such as Cl and alkali metals, are common in waste fuel. Moreover, waste contains much higher levels of troublesome trace elements, such as Zn, which is thought to accelerate a corrosion process. Varying fuel quality can be strenuous on the boiler system and may cause fouling and corrosion of heat exchanger surfaces. This thesis examines waste fuels and waste combustion from different angles, with the objective of giving a better understanding of waste as an important fuel in today’s fuel economy. Several chemical characterisation campaigns of waste fuels over longer time periods (10-12 months) was used to determine the fossil content of Swedish waste fuels, to investigate possible seasonal variations, and to study the presence of Zn in waste. Data from the characterisation campaigns were used for thermodynamic equilibrium calculations to follow trends and determine the effect of changing concentrations of various elements. The thesis also includes a study of the thermal behaviour of Zn and a full—scale study of how the bed temperature affects the volatilisation of alkali metals and Zn from the fuel. As mixed waste fuel contains considerable amounts of fresh biomass, such as wood, food waste, paper etc. it would be wrong to classify it as a fossil fuel. When Sweden introduced waste combustion as a part of the European Union emission trading system in the beginning of 2013 there was a need for combustion plants to find a usable and reliable method to determine the fossil content. Four different methods were studied in full-scale of seven combustion plants; 14Canalysis of solid waste, 14C-analysis of flue gas, sorting analysis followed by calculations, and a patented balance method that is using a software program to calculate the fossil content based on parameters from the plant. The study showed that approximately one third of the coal in Swedish waste mixtures has fossil origins and presented the plants with information about the four different methods and their advantages and disadvantages. Characterisation campaigns also showed that industrial waste contain higher levels of trace elements, such as Zn. The content of Zn in Swedish waste fuels was determined to be approximately 800 mg kg-1 on average, based on 42 samples of solid waste from seven different plants with varying mixtures between municipal solid waste and industrial waste. A review study of the occurrence of Zn in fuels confirmed that the highest amounts of Zn are present in waste fuels rather than in fossil or biomass fuels. In tires, Zn is used as a vulcanizing agent and can reach concentration values of 9600-16800 mg kg-1. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment is the second Zn-richest fuel and even though on average Zn content is around 4000 mg kg-1, the values of over 19000 mg kg-1 were also reported. The increased amounts of Zn, 3000-4000 mg kg-1, are also found in municipal solid waste, sludge with over 2000 mg kg-1 on average (some exceptions up to 49000 mg kg-1), and other waste derived fuels (over 1000 mg kg-1). Zn is also found in fossil fuels. In coal, the average level of Zn is 100 mg kg-1, the higher amount of Zn was only reported for oil shale with values between 20-2680 mg kg-1. The content of Zn in biomass is basically determined by its natural occurrence and it is typically 10-100 mg kg-1. The thermal behaviour of Zn is of importance to understand the possible reactions taking place in the boiler. By using thermal analysis three common Zn-compounds were studied (ZnCl2, ZnSO4, and ZnO) and compared to phase diagrams produced with thermodynamic equilibrium calculations. The results of the study suggest that ZnCl2(s/l) cannot exist readily in the boiler due to its volatility at high temperatures and its conversion to ZnO in oxidising conditions. Also, ZnSO4 decomposes around 680°C, while ZnO is relatively stable in the temperature range prevailing in the boiler. Furthermore, by exposing ZnO to HCl in a hot environment (240-330°C) it was shown that chlorination of ZnO with HCl gas is possible. Waste fuel containing high levels of elements known to be corrosive, for example, Na and K in combination with Cl, and also significant amounts of trace elements, such as Zn, are demanding on the whole boiler system. A full-scale study of how the volatilisation of Na, K, and Zn is affected by the bed temperature in a fluidised bed boiler was performed parallel with a lab-scale study with the same conditions. The study showed that the fouling rate on deposit probes were decreased by 20 % when the bed temperature was decreased from 870°C to below 720°C. In addition, the lab-scale experiments clearly indicated that the amount of alkali metals and Zn volatilised depends on the reactor temperature.

Biogas production in regional integrated biodegradable waste treatment – Possibilities for improving energy performance and reducing GHG emissions

The greatest threat that the biodegradable waste causes on the environment is the methane produced in landfills by the decomposition of this waste. The Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC) aims to reduce the landfilling of biodegradable waste. In Finland, 31% of biodegradable municipal waste ended up into landfills in 2012. The pressure of reducing disposing into landfills is greatly increased by the forthcoming landfill ban on biodegradable waste in Finland. There is a need to discuss the need for increasing the utilization of biodegradable waste in regional renewable energy production to utilize the waste in a way that allows the best possibilities to reduce GHG emissions. The objectives of the thesis are: (1) to find important factors affecting renewable energy recovery possibilities from biodegradable waste, (2) to determine the main factors affecting the GHG balance of biogas production system and how to improve it and (3) to find ways to define energy performance of biogas production systems and what affects it. According to the thesis, the most important factors affecting the regional renewable energy possibilities from biodegradable waste are: the amount of available feedstock, properties of feedstock, selected utilization technologies, demand of energy and material products and the economic situation of utilizing the feedstocks. The biogas production by anaerobic digestion was seen as the main technology for utilizing biodegradable waste in agriculturally dense areas. The main reason for this is that manure was seen as the main feedstock, and it can be best utilized with anaerobic digestion, which can produce renewable energy while maintaining the spreading of nutrients on arable land. Biogas plants should be located close to the heat demand that would be enough to receive the produced heat also in the summer months and located close to the agricultural area where the digestate could be utilized. Another option for biogas use is to upgrade it to biomethane, which would require a location close to the natural gas grid. The most attractive masses for biogas production are municipal and industrial biodegradable waste because of gate fees the plant receives from them can provide over 80% of the income. On the other hand, directing gate fee masses for small-scale biogas plants could make dispersed biogas production more economical. In addition, the combustion of dry agricultural waste such as straw would provide a greater energy amount than utilizing them by anaerobic digestion. The complete energy performance assessment of biogas production system requires the use of more than one system boundary. These can then be used in calculating output–input ratios of biogas production, biogas plant, biogas utilization and biogas production system, which can be used to analyze different parts of the biogas production chain. At the moment, it is difficult to compare different biogas plants since there is a wide variation of definitions for energy performance of biogas production. A more consistent way of analyzing energy performance would allow comparing biogas plants with each other and other recovery systems and finding possible locations for further improvement. Both from the GHG emission balance and energy performance point of view, the energy consumption at the biogas plant was the most significant factor. Renewable energy use to fulfil the parasitic energy demand at the plant would be the most efficient way to reduce the GHG emissions at the plant. The GHG emission reductions could be increased by upgrading biogas to biomethane and displacing natural gas or petrol use in cars when compared to biogas CHP production. The emission reductions from displacing mineral fertilizers with digestate were seen less significant, and the greater N2O emissions from spreading digestate might surpass the emission reductions from displacing mineral fertilizers.

A Bayesian Approach for Forecasting Heat Load in a District Heating System

The growing population in cities increases the energy demand and affects the environment by increasing carbon emissions. Information and communications technology solutions which enable energy optimization are needed to address this growing energy demand in cities and to reduce carbon emissions. District heating systems optimize the energy production by reusing waste energy with combined heat and power plants. Forecasting the heat load demand in residential buildings assists in optimizing energy production and consumption in a district heating system. However, the presence of a large number of factors such as weather forecast, district heating operational parameters and user behavioural parameters, make heat load forecasting a challenging task. This thesis proposes a probabilistic machine learning model using a Naive Bayes classifier, to forecast the hourly heat load demand for three residential buildings in the city of Skellefteå, Sweden over a period of winter and spring seasons. The district heating data collected from the sensors equipped at the residential buildings in Skellefteå, is utilized to build the Bayesian network to forecast the heat load demand for horizons of 1, 2, 3, 6 and 24 hours. The proposed model is validated by using four cases to study the influence of various parameters on the heat load forecast by carrying out trace driven analysis in Weka and GeNIe. Results show that current heat load consumption and outdoor temperature forecast are the two parameters with most influence on the heat load forecast. The proposed model achieves average accuracies of 81.23 % and 76.74 % for a forecast horizon of 1 hour in the three buildings for winter and spring seasons respectively. The model also achieves an average accuracy of 77.97 % for three buildings across both seasons for the forecast horizon of 1 hour by utilizing only 10 % of the training data. The results indicate that even a simple model like Naive Bayes classifier can forecast the heat load demand by utilizing less training data.

Potential of energy and nutrient recovery from biodegradable waste by co-treatment in Lithuania

Biodegradable waste quantities in Lithuania and their potential for the co-treatment in renewable energy and organic fertilizer production are investigated. Two scenarios are formulated to study the differences of the amounts of obtainable energy and fertilizers between different ways of utilization. In the first scenario, only digestion is used, and in the second scenario, other materials than straw are digested, and straw and the solid fraction of sewage sludge digestate are combusted. As a result, the amounts of heat and electricity, as well as the fertilizer amounts in the counties are obtained for both scenarios. Based on this study, the share of renewable energy in Lithuania could be doubled by the co-treatment of different biodegradable materials.

Modelling the exothermic heat and the demand of cooling in paper and pulp industry biological wastewater treatment

This master thesis presents a study on the requisite cooling of an activated sludge process in paper and pulp industry. The energy consumption of paper and pulp industry and it’s wastewater treatment plant in particular is relatively high. It is therefore useful to understand the wastewater treatment process of such industries. The activated sludge process is a biological mechanism which degrades carbonaceous compounds that are present in waste. The modified activated sludge model constructed here aims to imitate the bio-kinetics of an activated sludge process. However, due to the complicated non-linear behavior of the biological process, modelling this system is laborious and intriguing. We attempt to find a system solution first using steady-state modelling of Activated Sludge Model number 1 (ASM1), approached by Euler’s method and an ordinary differential equation solver. Furthermore, an enthalpy study of paper and pulp industry’s vital pollutants was carried out and applied to revise the temperature shift over a period of time to formulate the operation of cooling water. This finding will lead to a forecast of the plant process execution in a cost-effective manner and management of effluent efficiency. The final stage of the thesis was achieved by optimizing the steady state of ASM1.

Chemistry of potassium halides and their role in corrosion in biomass and waste firing

Compared to the use of traditional fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas), combustion of biomass and waste fuels has several environmental and economic advantages for heat and power generation. However, biomass and waste fuels might contain halogens (Cl, Br, F), alkali metals (Na, K) and heavy metals (Zn, Pb), which may cause harmful emissions and corrosion problems. Hightemperature corrosion occurs typically on furnace waterwalls and superheaters. The corrosion of the boiler tube materials limits the increase of thermal efficiency of steam boilers and leads to costly shutdowns and repairs. In recent years, some concerns have been raised about halogen (Cl, Br, and F)-related hightemperature corrosion in biomass- and waste-fired boilers. Chlorine-related high-temperature corrosion has been studied extensively. The presence of alkali chlorides in the deposits is believed to play a major role in the corrosion observed in biomass and waste fired boilers. However, there is much less information found in literature on the corrosion effect of bromine and fluorine. According to the literature, bromine is only assumed to play a role similar to chlorine; the role of fluorine is even less understood. In this work, a series of bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) bench-scale tests were carried out to characterize the formation and sulfation behaviors of KCl and KBr in BFB combustion conditions. Furthermore, a series of laboratory tests were carried out to investigate the hightemperature corrosion behaviors of three different superheater steels (10CrMo9-10, AISI 347 and Sanicro 28) exposed to potassium halides in ambient air and wet air (containing 30% H2O). The influence of H2O and O2 on the high-temperature corrosion of steels both with and without a salt (KCl) in three gas atmospheres (2% H2O-30% O2-N2, 2% H2O-2% O2-N2 and 30% H2O-2% O2-N2) was also studied. From the bench-scale BFB combustion tests, it was found that HBr has a clearly higher affinity for the available K forming KBr than HCl forming KCl. The tests also indicated that KCl has a higher tendency for sulfation than KBr. From the laboratory corrosion tests in ambient air (also called “dry air” in Paper III and Paper IV), it was found that at relatively low temperatures (≤ 550 °C) the corrosivity of KBr and KF are similar to KCl. At 600 °C, KF showed much stronger corrosivity than KBr and KCl, especially for 10CrMo9-10 and AISI 347. When exposed to KBr or KF, 10CrMo9-10 was durable at least up to 450 °C, while AISI 347 and Sanicro 28 were durable at least up to 550 °C. From the laboratory corrosion tests in wet air (30% H2O), no obvious effect of water vapor was detected at 450 °C. At 550 °C, the influence of water vapor became significant in some cases, but the trend was not consistent. At 550 °C, after exposure with KBr, 10CrMo9-10 suffered from extreme corrosion; after exposure with KF and KCl, the corrosion was less severe, but still high. At 550 °C, local deep pitting corrosion occurred on AISI 347 and Sanicro 28 after exposure with KF. Some formation of K2CrO4 was observed in the oxide layer. At 550 °C, AISI 347 and Sanicro 28 suffered from low corrosion (oxide layer thickness of < 10 μm) after exposure with KBr and KCl. No formation of K2CrO4 was observed. Internal oxidation occurred in the cases of AISI 347 with KBr and KCl. From the laboratory corrosion tests in three different gas atmospheres (2% H2O-30% O2-N2, 2% H2O-2% O2-N2 and 30% H2O-2% O2-N2), it was found that in tests with no salt, no corrosion occurred on AISI 347 and Sanicro 28 up to 600 °C in both the “O2-rich” (2% H2O-30% O2-N2) and “H2O-rich” (30% H2O-2% O2-N2) gas atmospheres; only 10CrMo9-10 showed increased corrosion with increasing temperature. For 10CrMo9-10 in the “O2-rich” atmosphere, the presence of KCl significantly increased the corrosion compared to the “no salt” cases. For 10CrMo9-10 in the “H2O-rich” atmosphere, the presence or absence of KCl did not show any big influence on corrosion. The formation of K2CrO4 was observed only in the case with the “O2-rich” atmosphere. Considering both the results from the BFB tests and the laboratory corrosion tests, if fuels containing Br were to be combusted, the corrosion damage of superheaters would be expected to be higher than if the fuels contain only Cl. Information generated from these studies can be used to help the boiler manufacturers in selecting materials for the most demanding combustion systems.

A combined infrared/heat pump drying technology applied to a rotary dryer

Selostus: Yrttien ja vihannesten infrapunakuivaus rumpukuivurissa

Yhdyskuntalietteen ja biopolttoaineiden käsittelyketjujen ja polton teknistaloudellinen tarkastelu

Työn tavoitteena on kartoittaa yhdyskuntalietteen ja kierrätys- sekä biopolttoaineiden käsittelyä ja polttoa lietteenpolttolaitoksen tarpeita ajatellen. Lietteen käsittelyketjun ja kierrätys- sekä biopolttoaineketjujen tekninen tarkastelu on siis työn keskeinen tavoite. Lisäksi lasketaan polttolaitoksen suurimpia mahdollisia investointikustannuksia eri polttoainevaihtoehdoilla. Työssä tehdään muun ohella case-tarkastelua Kaakkois- Suomen alueeseen liittyen. Tavoitteena on muodostaa tarkoitukseen soveltuva polttoaineratkaisu kullekin tapauk-selle. Työn alkuosassa tutustutaan yleisesti lietteeseen sekä polttoaineen että jätteen roolissa. Tarkastelu sisältää tietoja lietteen ominaisuuksista sekä lietteenkäsittelyssä olennaisista lainsäädännöllisistä seikoista. Samoin katsastetaan hieman lietteen esikäsittelyä, mekaanista vedenerotusta, termistä kuivausta ja polttoa tarkastellaan yleisessä valossa. Lisäksi alkuosassa keskitytään eri bio- jakierrätyspolttoainevaihtoehtoihin tarkastelemalla niiden yleisyyttä polttoaineena sekä esittelemällä niiden käsittelyketjuja. Työn loppupuoliskolla kiinnitetään huomiota case tapausten avulla polttolaitoksesta saataviin tuottoihin sekä millaisen liikkumavaran eri polttoainevaihtoehdot investointien osalta sallivat. Case-tapauksissa pohditaan Kymenlaakson ja Etelä-Karjalan paikallisia lietteen-polttomahdollisuuksia yhdistettynä kierrätys- tai biopolttoaineisiin. Mekaanisesti kuivattua lietettä käsitellään kyseisissä tapauksissa vuosittain 6000 t ja 15 000 t. Lietteen polton tuottama sähkö- ja lämpöteho näyttävät riippuvan voimakkaasti lietteen kuiva-ainepitoisuudesta, eivät niinkään lietteen muista ominaisuuksista. Lisäksi joko bio- tai kierrätyspolttoaineella saadaan sähkön- ja lämmöntuotantoa nostettua huomattavasti.

Yhdyskuntalietteen käsittely ennen termistä kuivausta ja polttoa

Työn tavoitteena on kartoittaa yhdyskuntalietteen käsittelyä lietteenpolttolaitoksen tarpeita ajatellen. Lietteen käsittelytekniikoiden ja kuljetusvaihtoehtojen selvittäminen on siis työn keskeinen tavoite. Lisäksi otetaan selvää näiden tekijöiden kustannusrakenteesta. Yhdyskuntalietteen ominaisuuksien sekä käsittelyyn liittyvien ongelmakohtien valottaminen kuuluu samoin työn tavoitteisiin. Työssä tehdään muun ohella case-tarkastelua Kaakkois-Suomen alueeseen liittyen. Tavoitteena on muodostaa tarkoitukseen soveltuva lietteenkäsittelymalli kullekin tapaukselle. Työn alkuosassa tutustutaan yleisesti lietteeseen sekä polttoaineen että jätteen roolissa. Tarkastelu sisältää tietoja lietteen ominaisuuksista ja muodostuvista määristä sekä lietteenkäsittelyssä olennaisista lainsäädännöllisistä seikoista. Samoin katsastetaan hieman jäteve¬denpuhdistusprosessiin sekä näin ollen lietteen syntyyn. Lietteen esikäsittelyä, mekaanista vedenerotusta, termistä kuivausta ja polttoa tarkastellaan yleisessä valossa. Mekaanisen vedenerotuksen osalta myös eritellään ja vertaillaan laitteita. Etenkin linko, mutta myös suotonauhapuristin osoittautuivat erityisen sopiviksi kunnallisen lietteen käsittelyyn. Työn loppupuoliskolla kiinnitetään huomiota lietteen varastointiin sekä syöttö-ja purkumenetelmiin, lyhyen etäisyyden siirtoon ja pidemmän matkan kuljetukseen. Case-tapauksissa pohditaan Kymenlaakson ja Etelä-Karjalan paikallisia lietteenkäsittelymahdollisuuksia. Mekaanisesti kuivattua lietettä käsitellään kyseisissätapauksissa vuosittain 6000 t ja 15 000 t. Lietteen polton tuottama sähkö- ja lämpöteho näyttävät riippuvan voimakkaasti lietteen kuiva-ainepitoisuudesta, eivät niinkään lietteen muista ominaisuuksista. Lietteenkäsittelykustannukset tiivistetystä lietteestä termiseen kuivaukseen soveltuvaksi polttoaineeksi vaihtelevat10-20 \ lietetonnia kohden, riippuen käsittelyvaiheiden määrästä. Kustannuksia syntyy eniten mekaanisesta vedenerotuksesta ja varastoinnista.

Product Standardization of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers

Diplomityön tavoitteena oli selvittää, kuinka kohdeyrityksessä nykyhetkellä pitkältiräätälöitynä tuotetut putkilämmönvaihtimet voitaisiin standardisoida, jotta pystyttäisiin kohdistamaan resursseja oikein ja parantamaan siten yrityksen taloudellista suorituskykyä. Tutkimuksen edetessä määräävimmäksi tekijäksi työn tuloksia ajatellen nousi taloudellinen standardisointiaste, jonka perusteeksi kohdeyrityksen putkilämmönvaihtimissa valittiin standardisoitu suunnitteluohjeisto. Suunnitteluohjeiston lisäksi tuotestandardiin liitettiin ehdotus toimintapojen automatisoimisesta parametrisen valintataulukon sekä sähköisen manuaalin avulla. Työssä tuotestandardisointia tarkastellaan rationalisointi-investointina ja sen kannattavuutta on tarkasteltu investointilaskelmien sekä herkkyys analyysin avulla. Alkuarvot investointilaskelmissa perustuvat työssä yhdelle putkilämmönvaihtimelletoteutettuun tuotestandardisointitapaan, jos tätä tapaa käytettäisiin jatkossa kaikkiin kyseisen yksikön putkilämmönvaihtimiin.