Iowa Brownfield Reuse Guide, September 15, 2008

Brownfield sites come in all shapes and sizes, from vacated industrial sites to a single building plagued with asbestos materials. Brownfield sites are found in both urban and rural settings and present challenges that make the cleanup and redevelopment of these sites unique as compared with other real estate projects.

Control of Concrete Deterioration Due to Trace Compounds in Deicers, HR-299, 1992

This report describes the research completed under the research contract entitled "Development of a Conductometric Test for Frost Resistance of Concrete" undertaken for the Iowa Highway Research Board. The objective of the project was to develop a test method which can be reasonably and rapidly performed in the laboratory and in the field to predict, with a high degree of certainty, the behavior of concrete subjected to the action of alternate freezing and thawing. The significance of the results obtained, and recommendations for use and the continued development of conductometric testing are presented in this final report. In this project the conductometric evaluation of concrete durability was explored with three different test methods. The test methods and procedures for each type of test as well as presentation of the results obtained and their significance are included in the body of the report. The three test methods were: (1) Conductometric evaluation of the resistance of concrete to rapid freezing and thawing, (2) Conductometric evaluation of the resistance of concrete to natural freezing and thawing, and (3) Conductometric evaluation of the pore size distribution of concrete and its correlation to concrete durability. The report also includes recommendations for the continued development of these test methods.

Effects of Deicing Salt Trace Compounds on Deterioration of Portland Cement Concrete, HR-271, 1987

A study was made of the detrimental effects of trace amounts of calcium sulfate (occurring naturally in halite deposits used for deicing) on portland cement concrete pavements. It was found that sulfate introduced as gypsum with sodium chloride in deicing brines can have detrimental effects on portland cement mortar. Concentrations of sulfate as low as 0.5% of the solute rendered the brine destructive. Conditions of brine application were critical to specimen durability. The mechanisms of deterioration were found to be due to pore filling resulting from compound formation and deposition. A field evaluation of deteriorating joints suggests that the sulfate phenomena demonstrated in the laboratory also operates in the field. A preliminary evaluation was made of remedies: limits on sulfates, fly ash admixtures, treatment of existing pavement, and salt treatments. This report gives details of the research objectives, experimental design, field testing, and possible solutions. Recommendations for further study are presented.

Control of Concrete Deterioration Due to Trace Compounds in Deicers, HR-299 Phase I, 1988

This report presents the results of research on the influence of trace compounds from rock salt deicers on portland cement mortar and concrete. An evaluation of the deicers in stock throughout the state showed that about ninety-five percent contained enough sulfate to cause accelerated deterioration of concrete. Of the impurities found in rock salts, sulfate compounds of calcium and magnesium were found to be equally deleterious. Magnesium chloride was found to be innocuous. Introduction of fly ash eliminated the damage to portland cement mortar caused by sulfates. When used with frost resistant Alden aggregate in fly ash concrete and exposed to a variety of deicer brine compositions, the concrete did not deteriorate after exposure. With the exception of a high calcium brine, the behavior of the frost-prone Garrison aggregate was independent of deicer treatment; the high calcium brine reduced frost damage with this aggregate. Two approaches to reducing sulfate deterioration from deicers are suggested as (1) limiting the amount of sulfate to about 0.28 percent, and (2) making concrete sulfate-resistant by using fly ash. Techniques for making existing concrete deicer-sulfate-resistant are essential to a practical solution.

Control of Concrete Deterioration Due to Trace Compounds in Deicers, Phase II, HR-299, 1989

This report presents results of research on ways to reduce the detrimental effects of sulfate-tainted rock salt deicers on portland cement concrete used for highway pavements. Repetitious experiments on the influence of fly ash on the mortar phase of concrete showed significant improvement in resistance to deicing brines is possible. Fifteen to twenty percent by weight of fly ash replacement for portland cement was found to provide optimum improvement. Fly ashes from five sources were evaluated and all were found to be equally beneficial. Preliminary results indicate the type of coarse aggregate also plays an important role in terms of concrete resistance to freeze-thaw in deicing brines. This was particularly true for a porous ferroan dolomite thought to be capable of reaction with the brine. In this case fly ash improved the concrete, but not enough for satisfactory performance. An intermediate response was with a porous limestone where undesirable results were observed without fly ash and adequate performance was realized when 15% fly ash was added. The best combination for making deicer-resistant concrete was found to be with a non-porous limestone. Performance in brines was found to be adequate without fly ash, but better when fly ash was included. Consideration was given to treating existing hardened concrete made with poor aggregate and no fly ash to extend pavement life in the presence of deicers, particularly at joints. Sodium silicate was found to improve freeze-thaw resistance of mortar and is a good candidate for field usage because of its low cost and ease of handling.

Reuse of Lime Sludge from Water Softening and Coal Combustion Byproducts, TR-459, 2004

Disposal of lime sludge remains a major challenge to cities in the Midwest. Disposal of lime sludge from water softening adds about 7-10% to the cost of water treatment. Having effective and safe options is essential for future compliance with the regulations of the State of Iowa and within budget restrictions. Dewatering and drying are essential to all reuse applications as this affects transportation costs and utility. Feasibility tests were conducted on some promising applications like SOx control in power generation facilities that burn coal, replacement of limestone as an ingredient in portland cement production, dust control on gravel roads, neutralization of industrial wastewater pH, and combination with fly ash or cement in construction fill applications. A detailed report and analysis of the construction fills application is presented in the second half of the report. A brief discussion of the results directly follows.

Applications for Reuse of Lime Sludge from Water Softening, TR-535, 2005

Lime sludge, an inert material mostly composed of calcium carbonate, is the result of softening hard water for distribution as drinking water. A large city such as Des Moines, Iowa, produces about 30,700 tons of lime sludge (dry weight basis) annually (Jones et al., 2005). Eight Iowa cities representing, according to the United States (U.S.) Census Bureau, 23% of the state’s population of 3 million, were surveyed. They estimated that they collectively produce 64,470 tons of lime sludge (dry weight basis) per year, and they currently have 371,800 tons (dry weight basis) stockpiled. Recently, the Iowa Department of Natural Resources directed those cities using lime softening in drinking water treatment to stop digging new lagoons to dispose of lime sludge. Five Iowa cities with stockpiles of lime sludge funded this research. The research goal was to find useful and economical alternatives for the use of lime sludge. Feasibility studies tested the efficacy of using lime sludge in cement production, power plant SOx treatment, dust control on gravel roads, wastewater neutralization, and in-fill materials for road construction. Applications using lime sludge in cement production, power plant SOx treatment, and wastewater neutralization, and as a fill material for road construction showed positive results, but the dust control application did not. Since the fill material application showed the most promise in accomplishing the project’s goal within the time limits of this research project, it was chosen for further investigation. Lime sludge is classified as inorganic silt with low plasticity. Since it only has an unconfined compressive strength of approximately 110 kPa, mixtures with fly ash and cement were developed to obtain higher strengths. When fly ash was added at a rate of 50% of the dry weight of the lime sludge, the unconfined strength increased to 1600 kPa. Further, friction angles and California Bearing Ratios were higher than those published for soils of the same classification. However, the mixtures do not perform well in durability tests. The mixtures tested did not survive 12 cycles of freezing and thawing and wetting and drying without excessive mass and volume loss. Thus, these mixtures must be placed at depths below the freezing line in the soil profile. The results demonstrated that chemically stabilized lime sludge is able to contribute bulk volume to embankments in road construction projects.

The Relationship of Aggregate Durability to Trace Element Content, Interim Report, HR-266, 1984

This report is a brief overview of the recent Iowa Department of Transportation research in the area of durability of Portland cement, concrete under the direction of Wendeli Dubberke. Present plans are to publish a more detailed report on low Portland cement concrete- durability research in January, 1985.