Using the Number of Pores on Fingerprint Images to Detect Spoofing Attacks

Abstract-Due to the growing use of biometric technologies inour modern society, spoofing attacks are becoming a seriousconcern. Many solutions have been proposed to detect the use offake "fingerprints" on an acquisition device. In this paper, wepropose to take advantage of intrinsic features of friction ridgeskin: pores. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential ofusing pores to detect spoofing attacks.Results show that the use of pores is a promising approach. Fourmajor observations were made: First, results confirmed that thereproduction of pores on fake "fingerprints" is possible. Second,the distribution of the total number of pores between fake andgenuine fingerprints cannot be discriminated. Third, thedifference in pore quantities between a query image and areference image (genuine or fake) can be used as a discriminatingfactor in a linear discriminant analysis. In our sample, theobserved error rates were as follows: 45.5% of false positive (thefake passed the test) and 3.8% of false negative (a genuine printhas been rejected). Finally, the performance is improved byusing the difference of pore quantity obtained between adistorted query fingerprint and a non-distorted referencefingerprint. By using this approach, the error rates improved to21.2% of false acceptation rate and 8.3% of false rejection rate.

Influence of the number of queens on nestmate recognition and attractiveness of queens to workers in the Argentine ant, Iridomyrmex humilis (Mayr)

To investigate the influence of the number of queens per colony on nestmate recognition in Iridomyrmex humilis, comparative assays were performed to study the attraction of workers to queens. These assays demonstrated that a phenomenon of recognition is superimposed on the attraction of workers to queens. Workers could discriminate non-nestmate queens from their nestmate queen to which they were significantly more attracted. This discrimination is probably based on the learning by workers of queen and colony odour. The level of attraction of workers to non-nestmate queens was similar in monogynous and polygynous colonies, whereas the level of attraction of workers to nestmate queens was significantly lower in polygynous colonies. This difference in the level of attraction of workers to nestmate queens almost certainly resulted from a lower efficiency in nestmate recognition in polygynous colonies. It is hypothesized that the mixture of several pheromonal sources produced by less related individuals in polygynous colonies may result in a less distinct colony odour than in monogynous colonies. The results are discussed with regard to some implications of polygyny and particularly to the loss of intercolonial aggression in I. humilis as well as in other polygynous ant species

Indicators for the total number of melanocytic naevi : an adjunct for screening campaigns. Observational study on 292 patients.

BACKGROUND: The presence of multiple melanocytic naevi is a strong risk factor for melanoma. Use of the whole body naevus count to identify at-risk patients is impractical. OBJECTIVES: To (i) identify a valid anatomical predictor of total naevus count; (ii) determine the number of naevi that most accurately predict total naevus count above 25, 50 and 100; and (iii) evaluate determinants of multiple melanocytic naevi and atypical naevi. METHODS: Clinical data from 292 consecutive Spanish patients consulting for skin lesions requiring debriding were collected throughout 2009 and 2010. Correlations between site-specific and whole body naevus counts were analysed. Cut-offs to predict total naevus counts were determined using the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve. RESULTS: The studied population was young (median age 31 years, interquartile range 28-43). The naevus count on the right arm correlated best with the total nevus count (R(2) 0·80 for men, 0·86 for women). Presence of at least five naevi on the right arm was the strongest determinant of a total naevus count above 50 [odds ratio (OR) 34·4, 95% confidence interval (CI) 13·9-85·0] and of having at least one atypical naevus (OR 5·7, 95% CI 2·4-13·5). Cut-off values of 6, 8 and 11 naevi on the right arm best predicted total naevus count above 25, 50 and 100, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our results support the arm as a practical and reliable site to estimate the total naevus count when screening or phenotyping large populations. Threshold values for the number of naevi on the arm are proposed to help identify patients for melanoma screening.

Periprocedural Hemodynamic Depression Is Associated With a Higher Number of New Ischemic Brain Lesions After Stenting in the International Carotid Stenting Study-MRI Substudy.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Carotid artery stenting (CAS) is associated with a higher risk of both hemodynamic depression and new ischemic brain lesions on diffusion-weighted imaging than carotid endarterectomy (CEA). We assessed whether the occurrence of hemodynamic depression is associated with these lesions in patients with symptomatic carotid stenosis treated by CAS or CEA in the randomized International Carotid Stenting Study (ICSS)-MRI substudy. METHODS: The number and total volume of new ischemic lesions on diffusion-weighted imaging 1 to 3 days after CAS or CEA was measured in the ICSS-MRI substudy. Hemodynamic depression was defined as periprocedural bradycardia, asystole, or hypotension requiring treatment. The number of new ischemic lesions was the primary outcome measure. We calculated risk ratios and 95% confidence intervals per treatment with Poisson regression comparing the number of lesions in patients with or without hemodynamic depression. RESULTS: A total of 229 patients were included (122 allocated CAS; 107 CEA). After CAS, patients with hemodynamic depression had a mean of 13 new diffusion-weighted imaging lesions, compared with a mean of 4 in those without hemodynamic depression (risk ratio, 3.36; 95% confidence interval, 1.73-6.50). The number of lesions after CEA was too small for reliable analysis. Lesion volumes did not differ between patients with or without hemodynamic depression. CONCLUSIONS: In patients treated by CAS, periprocedural hemodynamic depression is associated with an excess of new ischemic lesions on diffusion-weighted imaging. The findings support the hypothesis that hypoperfusion increases the susceptibility of the brain to embolism. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION URL: http://www.controlled-trials.com. Unique identifier: ISRCTN25337470.

Number of X-ray examinations performed on paediatric and geriatric patients compared with adult patients.

The age of the patient is of prime importance when assessing the radiological risk to patients due to medical X-ray exposures and the total detriment to the population due to radiodiagnostics. In order to take into account the age-specific radiosensitivity, three age groups are considered: children, adults and the elderly. In this work, the relative number of examinations carried out on paediatric and geriatric patients is established, compared with adult patients, for radiodiagnostics as a whole, for dental and medical radiology, for 8 radiological modalities as well as for 40 types of X-ray examinations. The relative numbers of X-ray examinations are determined based on the corresponding age distributions of patients and that of the general population. Two broad groups of X-ray examinations may be defined. Group A comprises conventional radiography, fluoroscopy and computed tomography; for this group a paediatric patient undergoes half the number of examinations as that of an adult, and a geriatric patient undergoes 2.5 times more. Group B comprises angiography and interventional procedures; for this group a paediatric patient undergoes a one-fourth of the number of examinations carried out on an adult, and a geriatric patient undergoes five times more.

Influence of Bacille Calmette-Guérin vaccination on size of tuberculin skin test reaction : to what size ?

RESUME Le diagnostic d'infection tuberculeuse repose essentiellement sur le test tuberculinique (test de Mantoux). Cependant, le résultat de ce dernier est également influencé par d'autres facteurs, le plus important étant la vaccination par le Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG), interaction connue depuis de nombreuses années. Il est généralement admis que l'effet de la vaccination peut entraîner des réactions positives jusqu'à un diamètre d'induration de 15 mm. Au-delà, la positivité du test est en général attribuée à une primo-infection tuberculeuse. Peu d'études se sont réellement penchées sur le sujet. Chez le personnel de soins soumis à des Mantoux répétés, cette notion revêt une importance particulière pour interpréter correctement une réaction fortement positive en l'absence de facteurs de risque tuberculeux, dans un pays à faible endémie tuberculeuse. Notre étude a cherché à déterminer si le diamètre transversal de l'induration du Mantoux était un critère fiable pour distinguer une positivité associée à une infection tuberculeuse de celle associée à une ancienne vaccination. Elle s'est attachée à rechercher un seuil au-delà duquel l'infection tuberculeuse pourrait être considérée comme probable. Entre janvier 1991 et mars 1998, tous les nouveaux employés du CHUV ont été invités à recevoir un test tuberculinique à l'occasion de leur visite d'entrée à la Médecine du personnel. En cas de réponse négative, un deuxième test a été pratiqué une semaine plus tard, pour détecter un éventuel effet booster. Lors de la première visite, l'infirmière a rempli un questionnaire comprenant les données démographiques usuelles, des informations concernant les facteurs pouvant influencer la positivité du test, notamment les antécédents de vaccination par le BCG, les expositions à la tuberculose et l'existence d'antécédents d'infection tuberculeuse. Parmi les 5117 sujets inclus dans l'étude, nous avons trouvé que l'influence de la vaccination variait en fonction de l'âge. Chez les sujets de moins de 40 ans, la vaccination par le BCG était le prédicteur le plus important d'un Mantoux positif inférieur à 18 mm, de loin supérieur aux facteurs de risque habituels pour une infection tuberculeuse, eux aussi significatifs. L'effet du BCG était présent pour des réactions allant jusqu'à 20 mm. Pour les Mantoux supérieurs à 20 mm, l'odds ratio (OR) relatif au BCG demeure clairement élevé (supérieur à 3,4) bien que non significatif. Par contre, pour les employés âgés de plus de 40 ans, le BCG est un facteur prédictif pour les tests supérieurs à 10 mm (OR 2.4) mais n'est plus un facteur significatif pour une taille supérieure à 15 mm. Ces résultats montrent que l'interprétation d'un test tuberculinique même fortement positif, doit être faite avec prudence et discernement. En effet, notre étude démontre que chez les sujets vaccinés de moins de 40 ans, dans les zones de faible endémie tuberculeuse particulièrement en l'absence de facteurs de risque pour une infection tuberculeuse, un Mantoux positif jusqu'à 18 mm est dû, le plus probablement, à une ancienne vaccination par le BCG, plutôt qu'à une infection par M tuberczilosis. L'interprétation des Mantoux de taille inférieure à 18 mm et les Mantoux effectués chez des sujets de moins de 40 ans, doit prendre en compte l'existence d'un BCG antérieur. En conséquence, la mise en évidence d'une réaction de Mantoux fortement positive ne devrait pas conduire systématiquement à un traitement préventif. L'absence de spécificité du test Mantoux, utilisé pour le dépistage de la tuberculose depuis bientôt une centaine d'année, est un problème connu. Nous démontrons que la taille de l'induration ne peut pas être utilisée de façon fiable comme critère pour identifier une infection tuberculeuse chez une personne vaccinée avec le BCG, avec le risque de sui-traiter un nombre important de sujets. Dans notre étude, 21% des sujets avaient un Mantoux supérieur ou égal à 15 mm et auraient dû être traités selon les recommandations en vigueur en Suisse si l'on ne tenait pas compte du BCG antérieur. Des tests plus spécifiques sont actuellement à l'étude et permettront vraisemblablement, à l'avenir, de palier au problème de l'absence de spécificité du test de Mantoux. Abstract : Background. Previous bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccination can confound the results of a tuberculin skin test (TST). We sought to determine a cutoff diameter of TST induration beyond which the influence of BCG vaccination was negligible in evaluating potential Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in a population of health care workers with a high vaccination rate and low incidence of tuberculosis. Methods. From 1991 through 1998, all new employees at the University Hospital of Lausanne, Switzerland, underwent a 2-step TST at entry visit. We also gathered information on demographic characteristics, along with factors commonly associated with tuberculin positivity, including previous BCG vaccination, history of latent M. tuberculosis infection, and predictors for M. tuberculosis infection. Results. Among the 5117 investigated subjects, we found that influence of BCG vaccination on TST results varied across categories of age (likelihood ratio test, 0.0001). Prior BCG vaccination had a strong influence on skin test results of mm in diameter among persons <40 years old, compared with the influence of factors predictive of M. tuberculosis infection. Prior latent M. tuberculosis infection and travel or employment in a country in which tuberculosis is endemic also had significant influences. Conclusions. Interpretation of TST reactions of mm among BCG-vaccinated persons <40 years of age must be done with caution in areas with a low incidence of tuberculosis. In such a population, except for persons who have never been vaccinated, TST reactions of ---518 mm are more likely to be the result of prior vaccination than infection and should not systematically lead to preventive treatment.

Once-yearly zoledronic acid and days of disability, bed rest, and back pain: randomized, controlled HORIZON Pivotal Fracture Trial.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of once-yearly zoledronic acid on the number of days of back pain and the number of days of disability (ie, limited activity and bed rest) owing to back pain or fracture in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. This was a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in 240 clinical centers in 27 countries. Participants included 7736 postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Patients were randomized to receive either a single 15-minute intravenous infusion of zoledronic acid (5 mg) or placebo at baseline, 12 months, and 24 months. The main outcome measures were self-reported number of days with back pain and the number of days of limited activity and bed rest owing to back pain or a fracture, and this was assessed every 3 months over a 3-year period. Our results show that although the incidence of back pain was high in both randomized groups, women randomized to zoledronic acid experienced, on average, 18 fewer days of back pain compared with placebo over the course of the trial (p = .0092). The back pain among women randomized to zoledronic acid versus placebo resulted in 11 fewer days of limited activity (p = .0017). In Cox proportional-hazards models, women randomized to zoledronic acid were about 6% less likely to experience 7 or more days of back pain [relative risk (RR) = 0.94, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.90-0.99] or limited activity owing to back pain (RR = 0.94, 95% CI 0.87-1.00). Women randomized to zoledronic acid were significantly less likely to experience 7 or more bed-rest days owing to a fracture (RR = 0.58, 95% CI 0.47-0.72) and 7 or more limited-activity days owing to a fracture (RR = 0.67, 95% CI 0.58-0.78). Reductions in back pain with zoledronic acid were independent of incident fracture. Our conclusion is that in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis, a once-yearly infusion with zoledronic acid over a 3-year period significantly reduced the number of days that patients reported back pain, limited activity owing to back pain, and limited activity and bed rest owing to a fracture.

Outcomes of patients on dual-boosted PI regimens: experience of the Swiss HIV cohort study.

Dual-boosted protease inhibitors (DBPI) are an option for salvage therapy for HIV-1 resistant patients. Patients receiving a DBPI in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study between January1996 and March 2007 were studied. Outcomes of interest were viral suppression at 24 weeks. 295 patients (72.5%) were on DBPI for over 6 months. The median duration was 2.2 years. Of 287 patients who had HIV-RNA >400 copies/ml at the start of the regimen, 184 (64.1%) were ever suppressed while on DBPI and 156 (54.4%) were suppressed within 24 weeks. The median time to suppression was 101 days (95% confidence interval 90-125 days). The median number of past regimens was 6 (IQR, 3-8). The main reasons for discontinuing the regimen were patient's wish (48.3%), treatment failure (22.5%), and toxicity (15.8%). Acquisition of HIV through intravenous drug use and the use of lopinavir in combination with saquinavir or atazanavir were associated with an increased likelihood of suppression within 6 months. Patients on DBPI are heavily treatment experienced. Viral suppression within 6 months was achieved in more than half of the patients. There may be a place for DBPI regimens in settings where more expensive alternates are not available.

On the number of independent cultural traits carried by individuals and populations.

In species subject to individual and social learning, each individual is likely to express a certain number of different cultural traits acquired during its lifetime. If the process of trait innovation and transmission reaches a steady state in the population, the number of different cultural traits carried by an individual converges to some stationary distribution. We call this the trait-number distribution. In this paper, we derive the trait-number distributions for both individuals and populations when cultural traits are independent of each other. Our results suggest that as the number of cultural traits becomes large, the trait-number distributions approach Poisson distributions so that their means characterize cultural diversity in the population. We then analyse how the mean trait number varies at both the individual and population levels as a function of various demographic features, such as population size and subdivision, and social learning rules, such as conformism and anti-conformism. Diversity at the individual and population levels, as well as at the level of cultural homogeneity within groups, depends critically on the details of population demography and the individual and social learning rules.

Influence of the quality of nursing on the duration of weaning from mechanical ventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the influence of nursing on the duration of weaning from mechanical ventilation in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. DESIGN: Data were collected prospectively over a 1-yr period (study year) and compared with previously collected prospective data recorded in our chronic obstructive pulmonary disease database during a 5-yr period. SETTING: The medical intensive care unit (ICU) of a university hospital. PATIENTS: Eighty-seven patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Fifteen patients had chronic obstructive pulmonary disease that required mechanical ventilation for acute exacerbation of their disease (study year), and 72 were patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease from the previously collected data. INTERVENTIONS: The ICU course (duration of mechanical ventilation, mortality) was recorded, as well as several respiratory parameters (pulmonary function tests and arterial blood gases in stable conditions, and nutritional status), and they were compared with an "index of nursing." MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We developed an "index of nursing", comparing the effective workforce of the nurses (number and qualifications) with the ideal workforce required by the number of patients and the severity of their diseases. A value of 1.0 represented a perfect match between the needed and the effectively present nurses, whereas a lesser value signified a diminished available workforce. This index was compared with the complications and duration of weaning from mechanical ventilation. During the first 5 yrs, the duration of mechanical ventilation increased progressively from 7.3 +/- 8.0 to 38.2 +/- 25.8 days (p = .006). A significant inverse correlation between the duration of mechanical ventilation and the nursing index (p = .025) was found. In the sixth comparative year, the number of nurses increased (nursing index = 1.05) and the duration of mechanical ventilation decreased to 9.9 +/- 13 days (p < .001, yr 5 vs. yr 6). CONCLUSIONS: The quality of nursing appears to be a measurable and critical factor in the weaning from mechanical ventilation of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Below a threshold in the available workforce of ICU nurses, the weaning duration of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease increases dramatically. Therefore, very close attention should be given to the education and number of ICU nurses.

Teaching Motivational Interviewing to Medical Students to Improve Behavior Change Counseling Skills - Results of a Pilot Test

BACKGROUND: Patient behavior accounts for half or more of the variance in health, disease, mortality and treatment outcome and costs. Counseling using motivational interviewing (MI) effectively improves the substance use and medical compliance behavior of patients. Medical training should include substantial focus on this key issue of health promotion. The objective of the study is to test the efficacy of teaching MI to medical students. METHODS: Thirteen fourth-year medical students volunteered to participate. Seven days before and after an 8-hour interactive MI training workshop, each student performed a video-recorded interview with two standardized patients: a 60 year-old alcohol dependent female consulting a primary care physician for the first time about fatigue and depression symptoms; and a 50 year-old male cigarette smoker hospitalized for myocardial infarction. All 52 videos (13 students×2 interviews before and after training) were independently coded by two blinded clinicians using the Motivational Interviewing Training Integrity (MITI, 3.0). MITI scores consist of global spirit (Evocation, Collaboration, Autonomy/Support), global Empathy and Direction, and behavior count summary scores (% Open questions, Reflection to question ratio, % Complex reflections, % MI-adherent behaviors). A "beginning proficiency" threshold (BPT) is defined for each of these 9 scores. The proportion of students reaching BPT before and after training was compared using McNemar exact tests. Inter-rater reliability was evaluated by comparing double coding, and test-retest analyses were conducted on a sub-sample of 10 consecutive interviews by each coder. Weighted Kappas were used for global rating scales and intra-class correlations (ICC) were computed for behavior count summary scores. RESULTS: The percent of counselors reaching BPT before and after MI training increased significantly for Evocation (15% to 65%, p<.001), Collaboration (27% to 77%, p=.001), Autonomy/Support (15% to 54%, p=.006), and % Open questions (4% to 38%, p=.004). Proportions increased, but were not statistically significant for Empathy (38% to 58%, p=.18), Reflection to question ratio (0% to 15%, p=.12), % Complex reflection (35% to 54%, p=.23), and % MI-adherent behaviors (8% to 15%, p=.69). There was virtually no change for the Direction scale (92% to 88%, p=1.00). The reliability analyses produced mixed results. Weighted kappas for inter-rater reliability ranged from .14 for Direction to .51 for Collaboration, and from .27 for Direction to .80 for Empathy for test-retest. ICCs ranged from .20 for Complex reflections to .89 for Open questions (inter-rater), and from .67 for Complex reflections to .99 for Reflection to question ratio (test-retest). CONCLUSION: This pilot study indicates that a single 8-hour training in motivational interviewing for voluntary fourth-year medical students results in significant improvement of some MI skills. A larger sample of randomly selected medical students observed over longer periods should be studied to test if MI training generalizes to medical students. Inter-rater reliability and test-retest findings indicate a need for caution when interpreting the present results, as well as for more intensive training to help appropriately capture more dimensions of the process in future studies.

Medroxyprogesterone abrogates the inhibitory effects of estradiol on vascular smooth muscle cells by preventing estradiol metabolism.

Sequential conversion of estradiol (E) to 2/4-hydroxyestradiols and 2-/4-methoxyestradiols (MEs) by CYP450s and catechol-O-methyltransferase, respectively, contributes to the inhibitory effects of E on smooth muscle cells (SMCs) via estrogen receptor-independent mechanisms. Because medroxyprogesterone (MPA) is a substrate for CYP450s, we hypothesized that MPA may abrogate the inhibitory effects of E by competing for CYP450s and inhibiting the formation of 2/4-hydroxyestradiols and MEs. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the effects of E on SMC number, DNA and collagen synthesis, and migration in the presence and absence of MPA. The inhibitory effects of E on cell number, DNA synthesis, collagen synthesis, and SMC migration were significantly abrogated by MPA. For example, E (0.1micromol/L) reduced cell number to 51+/-3.6% of control, and this inhibitory effect was attenuated to 87.5+/-2.9% by MPA (10 nmol/L). Treatment with MPA alone did not alter any SMC parameters, and the abrogatory effects of MPA were not blocked by RU486 (progesterone-receptor antagonist), nor did treatment of SMCs with MPA influence the expression of estrogen receptor-alpha or estrogen receptor-beta. In SMCs and microsomal preparations, MPA inhibited the sequential conversion of E to 2-2/4-hydroxyestradiol and 2-ME. Moreover, as compared with microsomes treated with E alone, 2-ME formation was inhibited when SMCs were incubated with microsomal extracts incubated with E plus MPA. Our findings suggest that the inhibitory actions of MPA on the metabolism of E to 2/4-hydroxyestradiols and MEs may negate the cardiovascular protective actions of estradiol in postmenopausal women receiving estradiol therapy combined with administration of MPA.

Effect of rufinamide on gating properties of voltage-gated sodium channel Na(v)1.7

Background: Voltage-gated sodium channels (Nav1.x) are important players in chronic pain. A particular interest has grown in Nav1.7, expressed in nociceptors, since mutations in its gene are associated to two inherited pain syndromes or insensitivity to pain. Rufinamide, a drug used to treat refractory epilepsy such as the Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, has been shown to reduce the number of action potentials in cortical neurons without completely blocking Na channels. Aim: The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of rufinamide on Nav1.7 current. Methods and results: Whole-cell patch clamp experiments were performed using HEK293 cells stably expressing Nav1.7. Rufinamide significantly decreased peak sodium current by 28.3, 21.2 and 12.5% at concentrations of 500, 100 and 50μM respectively (precise EC50 could not be calculated since higher rufinamide concentrations could not be achieved in physiological buffer solution). No significant difference on the V1/2 of voltage-dependence of activation was seen; however a shift in the steady-state inactivation curve was observed (-82.6 mV to -88.8 mV and -81.8 to -87.6 mV for 50 and 100 μM rufinamide respectively, p <0.005). Frequency-dependent inhibition of Nav1.7 was also influenced by the drug. One hundred μM rufinamide reduced the peak sodium current (in % of the peak current taken at the first sweep of a train of 50) from 90.8 to 80.8% (5Hz), 88.7 to 71.8% (10 Hz), 69.1 to 49.2% (25 Hz) and 22.3 to 9.8% (50 Hz) (all p <0.05). Onset of fast inactivation was not influenced by the drug since no difference in the time constant of current decay was observed. Conclusion: In the concentration range of plasma level in human treated for epilepsy, 15 μM, rufinamide only minimally blocks Nav1.7. However, it stabilizes the inactivated state and exerts frequencydependent inhibition of Nav1.7. These pharmacological properties may be of use in reducing ectopic discharges as a causal and symptom related contributor of neuropathic pain syndrome.

On the transition of genetic differentiation from isolation to panmixia: What we can learn from GST and D.

Population genetic differentiation characterizes the repartition of alleles among populations. It is commonly thought that genetic differentiation measures, such as GST and D, should be near zero when allele frequencies are close to their expected value in panmictic populations, and close to one when they are close to their expected value in isolated populations. To analyse those properties, we first derive analytically a reference function f of known parameters that describes how important features of genetic differentiation (e.g. gene diversity, proportion of private alleles, frequency of the most common allele) are close to their expected panmictic and isolation value. We find that the behaviour of function f differs according to three distinct mutation regimes defined by the scaled mutation rate and the number of populations. Then, we compare GST and D to f, and demonstrate that their signal of differentiation strongly depends on the mutation regime. In particular, we show that D captures well the variations of genetic diversity when mutation is weak, otherwise it overestimates it when panmixia is not met. GST detects population differentiation when mutation is intermediate but has a low sensitivity to the variations of genetic diversity when mutation is weak. When mutation is strong the domain of sensitivity of both measures are altered. Finally, we also point out the importance of the number of populations on genetic differentiation measures, and provide recommendations for the use of GST and D.