The anorexigenic effects of metformin involve increases in hypothalamic leptin receptor expression.

Metformin demonstrates anorectic effects in vivo and inhibits neuropeptide Y expression in cultured hypothalamic neurons. Here we investigated the mechanisms implicated in the modulation of feeding by metformin in animals rendered obese by long-term high-fat diet (diet-induced obesity [DIO]) and in animals resistant to obesity (diet resistant [DR]). Male Long-Evans rats were kept on normal chow feeding (controls) or on high-fat diet (DIO, DR) for 6 months. Afterward, rats were treated 14 days with metformin (75 mg/kg) or isotonic sodium chloride solution and killed. Energy efficiency, metabolic parameters, and gene expression were analyzed at the end of the high-fat diet period and after 14 days of metformin treatment. At the end of the high-fat diet period, despite higher leptin levels, DIO rats had higher levels of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y expression than DR or control rats, suggesting a central leptin resistance. In DIO but also in DR rats, metformin treatment induced significant reductions of food intake accompanied by decreases in body weight. Interestingly, the weight loss achieved by metformin was correlated with pretreatment plasma leptin levels. This effect was paralleled by a stimulation of the expression of the leptin receptor gene (ObRb) in the arcuate nucleus. These data identify the hypothalamic ObRb as a gene modulated after metformin treatment and suggest that the anorectic effects of the drug are potentially mediated via an increase in the central sensitivity to leptin. Thus, they provide a rationale for novel therapeutic approaches associating leptin and metformin in the treatment of obesity.

Association between variants of the leptin receptor gene (LEPR) and overweight: a systematic review and an analysis of the CoLaus study.

BACKGROUND: Three non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms (Q223R, K109R and K656N) of the leptin receptor gene (LEPR) have been tested for association with obesity-related outcomes in multiple studies, showing inconclusive results. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis on the association of the three LEPR variants with BMI. In addition, we analysed 15 SNPs within the LEPR gene in the CoLaus study, assessing the interaction of the variants with sex. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We searched electronic databases, including population-based studies that investigated the association between LEPR variants Q223R, K109R and K656N and obesity- related phenotypes in healthy, unrelated subjects. We furthermore performed meta-analyses of the genotype and allele frequencies in case-control studies. Results were stratified by SNP and by potential effect modifiers. CoLaus data were analysed by logistic and linear regressions and tested for interaction with sex. The meta-analysis of published data did not show an overall association between any of the tested LEPR variants and overweight. However, the choice of a BMI cut-off value to distinguish cases from controls was crucial to explain heterogeneity in Q223R. Differences in allele frequencies across ethnic groups are compatible with natural selection of derived alleles in Q223R and K109R and of the ancient allele in K656N in Asians. In CoLaus, the rs10128072, rs3790438 and rs3790437 variants showed interaction with sex for their association with overweight, waist circumference and fat mass in linear regressions. CONCLUSIONS: Our systematic review and analysis of primary data from the CoLaus study did not show an overall association between LEPR SNPs and overweight. Most studies were underpowered to detect small effect sizes. A potential effect modification by sex, population stratification, as well as the role of natural selection should be addressed in future genetic association studies.

Leptin inhibits directly glucocorticoid secretion by normal human and rat adrenal gland.

Different interactions have been described between glucocorticoids and the product of the ob gene leptin. Leptin can inhibit the activation of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis by stressful stimuli, whereas adrenal glucocorticoids stimulate leptin production by the adipocyte. The present study was designed to investigate the potential direct effects of leptin to modulate glucocorticoid production by the adrenal. Human adrenal glands from kidney transplant donors were dissociated, and isolated primary cells were studied in vitro. These cells were preincubated with recombinant leptin (10(-10)-10(-7) M) for 6 or 24 h, and basal or ACTH-stimulated cortisol secretion was subsequently measured. Basal cortisol secretion was unaffected by leptin, but a significant and dose-dependent inhibition of ACTH-stimulated cortisol secretion was observed [down by 29 +/- 0.1% of controls with the highest leptin dose, P < 0.01 vs. CT (unrelated positive control)]. This effect of leptin was also observed in rat primary adrenocortical cells, where leptin inhibited stimulated corticosterone secretion in a dose-dependent manner (down by 46 +/- 0.1% of controls with the highest leptin dose, P < 0.001 vs. CT). These effects of leptin in adrenal cells are likely mediated by the long isoform of the leptin receptor (OB-R), because its transcript was found to be expressed in the adrenal tissue and leptin had no inhibitory effect in adrenal glands obtained from db/db mice. Therefore, leptin inhibits directly stimulated cortisol secretion from human and rat adrenal glands, and this may represent an important mechanism to modulate glucocorticoid levels in various metabolic states.

Prolonged but not short negative energy condition restored corticoadrenal leptin sensitivity in the hypothalamic obese rat.

BACKGROUND/AIM: We have reported that neonatal treatment with monosodium L-glutamate (MSG), which causes damage to the arcuate nucleus, leads to severe hyperleptinemia and reduced adrenal leptin receptor (ob-Rb) expression in adulthood. As a result, rats given MSG neonatally display corticoadrenal leptin-resistance, a defect that is overridden by normalization of corticoadrenal hyperfunction. The aim of the present study was to determine whether negative energy conditions could correct corticoadrenal cell dysfunction in rats given MSG neonatally. METHODS: Normal (CTR) and MSG-treated female rats were subjected to food removal for 1-5 days, or prolonged (24-61 days) food restriction (FR). Plasma levels of several biomarkers and in vitro corticoadrenal function were evaluated following starvation or FR. RESULTS: Fasting for 1-5 days reduced plasma leptin levels in CTR and MSG rats, compared to levels in the respective groups fed ad libitum(p < 0.05), but adrenal leptin-resistance was unchanged. With prolonged FR, isolated adrenal cells from MSG rats became sensitive to leptin, which lowered ACTH-induced glucocorticoid release. This restoration of leptin response was associated with normalization of adrenal ob-Rb gene expression. CONCLUSION: Dietary restriction in some leptin-resistant obese phenotypes may normalize adrenocortical function.

Rôle et mécanisme d'action de la metformine et du telmisartan sur la régulation de la prise alimentaire

Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons étudié les mécanismes d'action de deux médicaments connus pour diminuer la prise alimentaire et pondérale : la metformine et le telmisartan. Nous avons dans un premier temps étudié les effets de la metformine, un antidiabétique oral connu pour avoir des effets anorexigènes. Les mécanismes hypothalamiques potentiellement impliqués dans la modulation de la prise alimentaire par la metformine ont été étudiés dans trois groupes de rats : un groupe de rats obèses (DIO), un groupe de rats résistants à l'obésité (DR) ainsi qu'un groupe contrôle. A la fin de la période de prise pondérale de six mois, les rats DIO avaient des taux d'ARNm de NPY hypothalamique plus élevés que leurs congénères résistants et contrôles. Chez les DIO ainsi que chez les DR un traitement par metformine induit une baisse significative de la prise alimentaire accompagnée par une baisse du poids. Nous avons pu d'autre part constater que la perte de poids obtenue par un traitement de metformine était corrélée aux taux circulants de leptine avant le traitement. Cet effet s'accompagne d'une augmentation de l'expression du récepteur ObRb au niveau hypothalamique. Dans un second temps, nous avons étudié les effets du telmisartan, un inhibiteur du récepteur à l'angiotensine II ayant une activité agoniste partielle PPARγ. L'influence du telmisartan associé à la pioglitazone sur la prise alimentaire et pondérale a été examinée en étudiant leur effet sur les neuropeptides hypothalamiques responsables du contrôle de la prise alimentaire. Quatre groupes de souris soumises à un régime riche en graisse ont été formés : un groupe placebo, un groupe pioglitazone, un groupe telmisartan et un groupe pioglitazone-telmisartan. Le telmisartan a aboli la prise pondérale induite par une diète riche en graisse ou par un traitement de pioglitazone. Cette diminution était corrélée à une baisse de la prise alimentaire et de l'expression hypothalamique d'AgRP. Cette étude confirme donc les effets anorexigènes du telmisartan et démontre pour la première fois le rôle fonctionnel du telmisartan sur l'expression hypothalamique d'AgRP. English Abstract : In this work, we investigated the effect of two drugs known to have interessants effects on food intake and body weight. First we investigated the hypothalamic mechanisms potentially implicated in the modulation of feeding by the glucose-lowering drug metformin in three different groups of animals: diet-induced obese (DIO) and diet-resistant (DR) male rats as well as lean controls (CT). At the end of the high fat diet period, despite higher leptin levels, DIO rats had higher levels of hypothalamic NPY expression than DR or CT, suggesting a central leptin resistance. In DIO but also in DR rats, metformin treatment induced significant reductions of food intake accompanied by decreases in body weight. Interestingly, the weight loss achieved by metformin was correlated with pre-treatment plasma leptin levels. This effect was paralleled by a stimulation of the expression of the leptin receptor gene (ObRb) in the arcuate nucleus. Next we investigated the antihypertensive drug Telmisartan, an angiotensin II receptor blocker with PPARγ agonistic properties. The influence of telmisartan, of pioglitazone and of their association on weight gain and food intake was assessed by studying their effects on neuro-endocrine mediators involved in food intake. Mice were fed a high fat diet, weightmatched and randomized in four treatment groups: vehicle, pioglitazone, telmisartan and pioglitazone-telmisartan. Telmisartan treatment was found to abolish weight and fat gain in either vehicle or pioglitazone treated mice. This effect was accompanied by a decrease in food intake. The hypothalamic expression of the agouti-related protein and plasma leptin levels show also a decrease under metformin treatment. This study confirms the anorexigenic effects of telmisartan in mice fed a high fat diet, and suggests for the first time a functional role of telmisartan on hypothalamic orexigenic agouti-related protein regulation.

The neuropeptide Y Y1 receptor regulates leptin-mediated control of energy homeostasis and reproductive functions.

The orexigenic neurotransmitter neuropeptide Y (NPY) plays a central role in the hypothalamic control of food intake and energy balance. NPY also exerts an inhibition of the gonadotrope axis that could be important in the response to poor metabolic conditions. In contrast, leptin provides an anorexigenic signal to centrally control the body needs in energy. Moreover, leptin contributes to preserve adequate reproductive functions by stimulating the activity of the gonadotrope axis. It is of interest that hypothalamic NPY represents a primary target of leptin actions. To evaluate the importance of the NPY Y1 and Y5 receptors in the downstream pathways modulated by leptin and controlling energy metabolism as well as the activity of the gonadotrope axis, we studied the effects of leptin administration on food intake and reproductive functions in mice deficient for the expression of either the Y1 or the Y5 receptor. Furthermore, the role of the Y1 receptor in leptin resistance was determined in leptin-deficient ob/ob mice bearing a null mutation in the NPY Y1 locus. Results point to a crucial role for the NPY Y1 receptor in mediating the NPY pathways situated downstream of leptin actions and controlling food intake, the onset of puberty, and the maintenance of reproductive functions.

Impaired glucose homeostasis in mice lacking the alpha1b-adrenergic receptor subtype.

To assess the role of the alpha1b-adrenergic receptor (AR) in glucose homeostasis, we investigated glucose metabolism in knockout mice deficient of this receptor subtype (alpha1b-AR-/-). Mutant mice had normal blood glucose and insulin levels, but elevated leptin concentrations in the fed state. During the transition to fasting, glucose and insulin blood concentrations remained markedly elevated for at least 6 h and returned to control levels after 24 h whereas leptin levels remained high at all times. Hyperinsulinemia in the post-absorptive phase was normalized by atropine or methylatropine indicating an elevated parasympathetic activity on the pancreatic beta cells, which was associated with increased levels of hypothalamic NPY mRNA. Euglycemic clamps at both low and high insulin infusion rates revealed whole body insulin resistance with reduced muscle glycogen synthesis and impaired suppression of endogenous glucose production at the low insulin infusion rate. The liver glycogen stores were 2-fold higher in the fed state in the alpha1b-AR-/- compared with control mice, but were mobilized at the same rate during the fed to fast transition or following glucagon injections. Finally, high fat feeding for one month increased glucose intolerance and body weight in the alpha1b-AR-/-, but not in control mice. Altogether, our results indicate that in the absence of the alpha1b-AR the expression of hypotalamic NPY and the parasympathetic nervous activity are both increased resulting in hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance as well as favoring obesity and glucose intolerance development during high fat feeding.

A new selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma antagonist with antiobesity and antidiabetic activity.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-gamma) plays a key role in adipocyte differentiation and insulin sensitivity. Its synthetic ligands, the thiazolidinediones (TZD), are used as insulin sensitizers in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. These compounds induce both adipocyte differentiation in cell culture models and promote weight gain in rodents and humans. Here, we report on the identification of a new synthetic PPARgamma antagonist, the phosphonophosphate SR-202, which inhibits both TZD-stimulated recruitment of the coactivator steroid receptor coactivator-1 and TZD-induced transcriptional activity of the receptor. In cell culture, SR-202 efficiently antagonizes hormone- and TZD-induced adipocyte differentiation. In vivo, decreasing PPARgamma activity, either by treatment with SR-202 or by invalidation of one allele of the PPARgamma gene, leads to a reduction of both high fat diet-induced adipocyte hypertrophy and insulin resistance. These effects are accompanied by a smaller size of the adipocytes and a reduction of TNFalpha and leptin secretion. Treatment with SR-202 also dramatically improves insulin sensitivity in the diabetic ob/ob mice. Thus, although we cannot exclude that its actions involve additional signaling mechanisms, SR-202 represents a new selective PPARgamma antagonist that is effective both in vitro and in vivo. Because it yields both antiobesity and antidiabetic effects, SR-202 may be a lead for new compounds to be used in the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes.

The retinoid-related orphan receptor RORα promotes keratinocyte differentiation via FOXN1.

RORα is a retinoid-related orphan nuclear receptor that regulates inflammation, lipid metabolism, and cellular differentiation of several non-epithelial tissues. In spite of its high expression in skin epithelium, its functions in this tissue remain unclear. Using gain- and loss-of-function approaches to alter RORα gene expression in human keratinocytes (HKCs), we have found that this transcription factor functions as a regulator of epidermal differentiation. Among the 4 RORα isoforms, RORα4 is prominently expressed by keratinocytes in a manner that increases with differentiation. In contrast, RORα levels are significantly lower in skin squamous cell carcinoma tumors (SCCs) and cell lines. Increasing the levels of RORα4 in HKCs enhanced the expression of structural proteins associated with early and late differentiation, as well as genes involved in lipid barrier formation. Gene silencing of RORα impaired the ability of keratinocytes to differentiate in an in vivo epidermal cyst model. The pro-differentiation function of RORα is mediated at least in part by FOXN1, a well-known pro-differentiation transcription factor that we establish as a novel direct target of RORα in keratinocytes. Our results point to RORα as a novel node in the keratinocyte differentiation network and further suggest that the identification of RORα ligands may prove useful for treating skin disorders that are associated with abnormal keratinocyte differentiation, including cancer.

T Cells Bearing a Chimeric Antigen Receptor against Prostate-Specific Membrane Antigen Mediate Vascular Disruption and Result in Tumor Regression.

Aberrant blood vessels enable tumor growth, provide a barrier to immune infiltration, and serve as a source of protumorigenic signals. Targeting tumor blood vessels for destruction, or tumor vascular disruption therapy, can therefore provide significant therapeutic benefit. Here, we describe the ability of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-bearing T cells to recognize human prostate-specific membrane antigen (hPSMA) on endothelial targets in vitro as well as in vivo. CAR T cells were generated using the anti-PSMA scFv, J591, and the intracellular signaling domains: CD3ζ, CD28, and/or CD137/4-1BB. We found that all anti-hPSMA CAR T cells recognized and eliminated PSMA(+) endothelial targets in vitro, regardless of the signaling domain. T cells bearing the third-generation anti-hPSMA CAR, P28BBζ, were able to recognize and kill primary human endothelial cells isolated from gynecologic cancers. In addition, the P28BBζ CAR T cells mediated regression of hPSMA-expressing vascular neoplasms in mice. Finally, in murine models of ovarian cancers populated by murine vessels expressing hPSMA, the P28BBζ CAR T cells were able to ablate PSMA(+) vessels, cause secondary depletion of tumor cells, and reduce tumor burden. Taken together, these results provide a strong rationale for the use of CAR T cells as agents of tumor vascular disruption, specifically those targeting PSMA. Cancer Immunol Res; 3(1); 68-84. ©2014 AACR.

T-cell receptor V beta use predicts reactivity and tolerance to Mlsa-encoded antigens.

T lymphocytes reactive with the product of the Mlsa-allele of the minor lymphocyte stimulating (Mls) locus use a predominant T-cell receptor beta-chain variable gene segment (V beta 6). Such V beta 6-bearing T cells are selectively eliminated in the thymus of Mlsa-bearing mice, consistent with a model in which tolerance to self antigens is achieved by clonal deletion.

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor deficiency leads to modifications of trabecular bone volume and quality in mice.

A role for the gastro-intestinal tract in controlling bone remodeling is suspected since serum levels of bone remodeling markers are affected rapidly after a meal. Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) represents a suitable candidate in mediating this effect. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of total inhibition of GIP signaling on trabecular bone volume, microarchitecture and quality. We used GIP receptor (GIPR) knockout mice and investigated trabecular bone volume and microarchitecture by microCT and histomorphometry. GIPR-deficient animals at 16 weeks of age presented with a significant (20%) increase in trabecular bone mass accompanied by an increase (17%) in trabecular number. In addition, the number of osteoclasts and bone formation rate was significantly reduced and augmented, respectively in these animals when compared with wild-type littermates. These modifications of trabecular bone microarchitecture are linked to a remodeling in the expression pattern of adipokines in the GIPR-deficient mice. On the other hand, despite significant enhancement in bone volume, intrinsic mechanical properties of the bone matrix was reduced as well as the distribution of bone mineral density and the ratio of mature/immature collagen cross-links. Taken together, these results indicate an increase in trabecular bone volume in GIPR KO animals associated with a reduction in bone quality.

Mutational analysis of the highly conserved arginine within the Glu/Asp-Arg-Tyr motif of the alpha(1b)-adrenergic receptor: effects on receptor isomerization and activation.

We have suggested previously that both the negatively and positively charged residues of the highly conserved Glu/Asp-Arg-Tyr (E/DRY) motif play an important role in the activation process of the alpha(1b)-adreneric receptor (AR). In this study, R143 of the E/DRY sequence in the alpha(1b)-AR was mutated into several amino acids (Lys, His, Glu, Asp, Ala, Asn, and Ile). The charge-conserving mutation of R143 into lysine not only preserved the maximal agonist-induced response of the alpha(1b)-AR, but it also conferred high degree of constitutive activity to the receptor. Both basal and agonist-induced phosphorylation levels were significantly increased for the R143K mutant compared with those of the wild-type receptor. Other substitutions of R143 resulted in receptor mutants with either a small increase in constitutive activity (R143H and R143D), impairment (R143H, R143D), or complete loss of receptor-mediated response (R143E, R143A, R143N, R143I). The R413E mutant displayed a small, but significant increase in basal phosphorylation despite being severely impaired in receptor-mediated response. Interestingly, all the arginine mutants displayed increased affinity for agonist binding compared with the wild-type alpha(1b)-AR. A correlation was found between the extent of the affinity shift and the intrinsic activity of the agonists. The analysis of the receptor mutants using the allosteric ternary complex model in conjunction with the results of molecular dynamics simulations on the receptor models support the hypothesis that mutations of R143 can drive the isomerization of the alpha(1b)-AR into different states, highlighting the crucial role of this residue in the activation process of the receptor.

Endothelial mineralocorticoid receptor activation mediates endothelial dysfunction in diet-induced obesity.

AIMS: Aldosterone plays a crucial role in cardiovascular disease. 'Systemic' inhibition of its mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) decreases atherosclerosis by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress. Obesity, an important cardiovascular risk factor, is an inflammatory disease associated with increased plasma aldosterone levels. We have investigated the role of the 'endothelial' MR in obesity-induced endothelial dysfunction, the earliest stage in atherogenesis. METHODS AND RESULTS: C57BL/6 mice were exposed to a normal chow diet (ND) or a high-fat diet (HFD) alone or in combination with the MR antagonist eplerenone (200 mg/kg/day) for 14 weeks. Diet-induced obesity impaired endothelium-dependent relaxation in response to acetylcholine, whereas eplerenone treatment of obese mice prevented this. Expression analyses in aortic endothelial cells isolated from these mice revealed that eplerenone attenuated expression of pro-oxidative NADPH oxidase (subunits p22phox, p40phox) and increased expression of antioxidative genes (glutathione peroxidase-1, superoxide dismutase-1 and -3) in obesity. Eplerenone did not affect obesity-induced upregulation of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 or prostacyclin synthase. Endothelial-specific MR deletion prevented endothelial dysfunction in obese (exhibiting high 'endogenous' aldosterone) and in 'exogenous' aldosterone-infused lean mice. Pre-incubation of aortic rings from aldosterone-treated animals with the COX-inhibitor indomethacin restored endothelial function. Exogenous aldosterone administration induced endothelial expression of p22phox in the presence, but not in the absence of the endothelial MR. CONCLUSION: Obesity-induced endothelial dysfunction depends on the 'endothelial' MR and is mediated by an imbalance of oxidative stress-modulating mechanisms. Therefore, MR antagonists may represent an attractive therapeutic strategy in the increasing population of obese patients to decrease vascular dysfunction and subsequent atherosclerotic complications.

Ab initio modeling and molecular dynamics simulation of the alpha 1b-adrenergic receptor activation.

This work describes the ab initio procedure employed to build an activation model for the alpha 1b-adrenergic receptor (alpha 1b-AR). The first version of the model was progressively modified and complicated by means of a many-step iterative procedure characterized by the employment of experimental validations of the model in each upgrading step. A combined simulated (molecular dynamics) and experimental mutagenesis approach was used to determine the structural and dynamic features characterizing the inactive and active states of alpha 1b-AR. The latest version of the model has been successfully challenged with respect to its ability to interpret and predict the functional properties of a large number of mutants. The iterative approach employed to describe alpha 1b-AR activation in terms of molecular structure and dynamics allows further complications of the model to allow prediction and interpretation of an ever-increasing number of experimental data.