Genome of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus provides insight into the oldest plant symbiosis.

The mutualistic symbiosis involving Glomeromycota, a distinctive phylum of early diverging Fungi, is widely hypothesized to have promoted the evolution of land plants during the middle Paleozoic. These arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) perform vital functions in the phosphorus cycle that are fundamental to sustainable crop plant productivity. The unusual biological features of AMF have long fascinated evolutionary biologists. The coenocytic hyphae host a community of hundreds of nuclei and reproduce clonally through large multinucleated spores. It has been suggested that the AMF maintain a stable assemblage of several different genomes during the life cycle, but this genomic organization has been questioned. Here we introduce the 153-Mb haploid genome of Rhizophagus irregularis and its repertoire of 28,232 genes. The observed low level of genome polymorphism (0.43 SNP per kb) is not consistent with the occurrence of multiple, highly diverged genomes. The expansion of mating-related genes suggests the existence of cryptic sex-related processes. A comparison of gene categories confirms that R. irregularis is close to the Mucoromycotina. The AMF obligate biotrophy is not explained by genome erosion or any related loss of metabolic complexity in central metabolism, but is marked by a lack of genes encoding plant cell wall-degrading enzymes and of genes involved in toxin and thiamine synthesis. A battery of mycorrhiza-induced secreted proteins is expressed in symbiotic tissues. The present comprehensive repertoire of R. irregularis genes provides a basis for future research on symbiosis-related mechanisms in Glomeromycota.

Genome sequence of the metazoan plant-parasitic nematode Meloidogyne incognita.

Plant-parasitic nematodes are major agricultural pests worldwide and novel approaches to control them are sorely needed. We report the draft genome sequence of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita, a biotrophic parasite of many crops, including tomato, cotton and coffee. Most of the assembled sequence of this asexually reproducing nematode, totaling 86 Mb, exists in pairs of homologous but divergent segments. This suggests that ancient allelic regions in M. incognita are evolving toward effective haploidy, permitting new mechanisms of adaptation. The number and diversity of plant cell wall-degrading enzymes in M. incognita is unprecedented in any animal for which a genome sequence is available, and may derive from multiple horizontal gene transfers from bacterial sources. Our results provide insights into the adaptations required by metazoans to successfully parasitize immunocompetent plants, and open the way for discovering new antiparasitic strategies.

Interleukin-6 and chondrocyte mineralisation act in tandem to promote experimental osteoarthritis.

OBJECTIVES: Basic calcium phosphate (BCP) crystal and interleukin 6 (IL-6) have been implicated in osteoarthritis (OA). We hypothesise that these two factors may be linked in a reciprocal amplification loop which leads to OA. METHODS: Primary murine chondrocytes and human cartilage explants were incubated with hydroxyapatite (HA) crystals, a form of BCP, and the modulation of cytokines and matrix-degrading enzymes assayed. The ability of IL-6 to stimulate chondrocyte calcification was assessed in vitro. The mechanisms underlying the effects of HA on chondrocytes were investigated using chemical inhibitors, and the pathways mediating IL-6-induced calcification characterised by quantifying the expression of genes involved in chondrocyte mineralisation. The role of calcification in vivo was studied in the meniscectomy model of murine OA (MNX), and the link between IL-6 and cartilage degradation investigated by histology. RESULTS: In chondrocytes, BCP crystals stimulated IL-6 secretion, further amplified in an autocrine loop, through signalling pathways involving Syk and PI3 kinases, Jak2 and Stat3 molecules. Exogenous IL-6 promoted calcium-containing crystal formation and upregulation of genes involved in calcification: the pyrophosphate channel Ank, the calcium channel Annexin5 and the sodium/phosphate cotransporter Pit-1. Treatment of chondrocytes with IL-6 inhibitors significantly inhibited IL-6-induced crystal formation. In meniscectomised mice, increasing deposits of BCP crystals were observed around the joint and correlated with cartilage degradation and IL-6 expression. Finally, BCP crystals induced proteoglycan loss and IL-6 expression in human cartilage explants, which were reduced by an IL-6 inhibitor. CONCLUSIONS: BCP crystals and IL-6 form a positive feedback loop leading to OA. Targeting calcium-containing crystal formation and/or IL-6 are promising therapeutic strategies in OA.

Mechanisms of protein homeostasis in health, aging and disease.

When emerging from the ribosomes, new polypeptides need to fold properly, eventually translocate, and then assemble into stable, yet functionally flexible complexes. During their lifetime, native proteins are often exposed to stresses that can partially unfold and convert them into stably misfolded and aggregated species, which can in turn cause cellular damage and propagate to other cells. In animal cells, especially in aged neurons, toxic aggregates may accumulate, induce cell death and lead to tissue degeneration via different mechanisms, such as apoptosis as in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases and aging in general. The main cellular mechanisms effectively controlling protein homeostasis in youth and healthy adulthood are: (1) the molecular chaperones, acting as aggregate unfolding and refolding enzymes, (2) the chaperone-gated proteases, acting as aggregate unfolding and degrading enzymes, (3) the aggresomes, acting as aggregate compacting machineries, and (4) the autophagosomes, acting as aggregate degrading organelles. For unclear reasons, these cellular defences become gradually incapacitated with age, leading to the onset of degenerative diseases. Understanding these mechanisms and the reasons for their incapacitation in late adulthood is key to the design of new therapies against the progression of aging, degenerative diseases and cancers.

Effect of carbohydrate overfeeding on whole body macronutrient metabolism and expression of lipogenic enzymes in adipose tissue of lean and overweight humans

OBJECTIVE: Lipids stored in adipose tissue can originate from dietary lipids or from de novo lipogenesis (DNL) from carbohydrates. Whether DNL is abnormal in adipose tissue of overweight individuals remains unknown. The present study was undertaken to assess the effect of carbohydrate overfeeding on glucose-induced whole body DNL and adipose tissue lipogenic gene expression in lean and overweight humans. DESIGN: Prospective, cross-over study. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 11 lean (five male, six female, mean BMI 21.0+/-0.5 kg/m(2)) and eight overweight (four males, four females, mean BMI 30.1+/-0.6 kg/m(2)) volunteers were studied on two occasions. On one occasion, they received an isoenergetic diet containing 50% carbohydrate for 4 days prior to testing; on the other, they received a hyperenergetic diet (175% energy requirements) containing 71% carbohydrates. After each period of 4 days of controlled diet, they were studied over 6 h after having received 3.25 g glucose/kg fat free mass. Whole body glucose oxidation and net DNL were monitored by means of indirect calorimetry. An adipose tissue biopsy was obtained at the end of this 6-h period and the levels of SREBP-1c, acetyl CoA carboxylase, and fatty acid synthase mRNA were measured by real-time PCR. RESULTS: After isocaloric feeding, whole body net DNL amounted to 35+/-9 mg/kg fat free mass/5 h in lean subjects and to 49+/-3 mg/kg fat free mass/5 h in overweight subjects over the 5 h following glucose ingestion. These figures increased (P<0.001) to 156+/-21 mg/kg fat free mass/5 h in lean and 64+/-11 mg/kg fat free mass/5 h (P<0.05 vs lean) in overweight subjects after carbohydrate overfeeding. Whole body DNL after overfeeding was lower (P<0.001) and glycogen synthesis was higher (P<0.001) in overweight than in normal subjects. Adipose tissue SREBP-1c mRNA increased by 25% in overweight and by 43% in lean subjects (P<0.05) after carbohydrate overfeeding, whereas fatty acid synthase mRNA increased by 66 and 84% (P<0.05). CONCLUSION: Whole body net DNL is not increased during carbohydrate overfeeding in overweight individuals. Stimulation of adipose lipogenic enzymes is also not higher in overweight subjects. Carbohydrate overfeeding does not stimulate whole body net DNL nor expression of lipogenic enzymes in adipose tissue to a larger extent in overweight than lean subjects.

Role of NOX enzymes in phagocyte response and signaling upon Chlamydia infection

Les membres de l'ordre des Chlamydiales peuvent infecter un choix étendu d'animaux, insectes, et protistes. Comme toutes bactéries intracellulaires obligatoires, les Chlamydiales ont besoin d'une cellule hôte pour se répliquer. Chaque fois qu'une cellule est infectée une lutte commence entre les mécanismes de défense de la cellule et l'arsenal de facteurs de virulence de la bactérie. Dans cette thèse nous nous sommes intéressés à déterminer le rôle de deux mécanismes de l'immunité innée de l'hôte. En premier, nous avons étudié les NADPH oxidases, une source de molécules superoxydantes (MSO). Leur rôle dans la restriction de la réplication de Waddlia chondrophila et Estrella iausannensis a été étudié dans l'organisme modèle Dictyostelium discoideum et les macrophages humains. Différentes protéines Nox étaient nécessaires pour contrôler la réplication de W. chondrophila ou E. Iausannensis. De plus, nous avons déterminé que parmi les Chlamydiales, cinq espèces possédaient une catalase. Cette enzyme peut dégrader l'eau oxygénée, une MSO. L'activité de la catalase a été démontrée in vitro et dans les corps élémentaires. Avant de pouvoir étudier le rôle de NOX2 dans des macrophages infectés avec E. Iausannensis, nous avons dû établir la capacité de la bactérie à se répliquer clans les macrophages avec son trafic intracellulaire. Le deuxième mécanisme d'immunité innée que nous avons étudié est l'autophagie. Dans les cellules infectées l'autophagie permet de digérer les bactéries envahissantes. Deux protéines de la voie autophagique (Atg1 et Atg8) jouent un rôle dans la restriction de la croissance de W. chondrophila dans D. discoideum. D'avantage d'études sur l'immunité innée et les bactéries apparentés aux Chlamydia sont indispensables, car les réponses paraissent être spécifiques pour chaque espèce. - Members of the Chlamydiales order are able to infect a large variety of animals, insects, and protists. These obligate intracellular bacteria require a host cell for replication. Each time a cell is infected a struggle begins between the virulence arsenal of the bacteria and the defense mechanisms activated by the host. Each bacterial species will exhibit a selection of virulence factors that will allow it to overcome the defense of the host in some species, but not others. In this thesis we were interested in dissecting the role of two host innate immunity mechanisms. First we determined the role of NADPH oxidases, a source of reactive oxygen species (ROS), in restricting replication of Waddlia chondrophila and EstreHa lausannensis in the model organism Dictyostelium discoideum and human macrophages. Different Nox proteins were required to restrict growth of W. chondrophila and E. lausannensis. Additionally, we determined that five Chlamydia- related bacterial species encode for catalase, an enzyme that is able to degrade hydrogen peroxide, a ROS. The activity of the catalase was demonstrated in vitro and in elementary bodies. To study the role of NOX2 in macrophages for E. lausannensis we first had to determine the ability of E. lausannensis to grow in macrophages. Besides demonstrating its replication we also determined the intracellular trafficking of E. lausannensis. The second innate immunity mechanism studied was autophagy. Through autophagy bacteria can be targeted to degradation. Atg1 and Atg8, two autophagic proteins appeared restrict W. chondrophila replication in D. discoideum. More studies on innate immunity and Chlamydia-related bacteria are required. It appears that the responses to innate immunity are species specific and it will be difficult to generalize data obtained for W. chondrophila to the Chlamydiales order.

Importance of influx and efflux systems and xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes in intratumoral disposition of anticancer agents.

In this review, intratumoral drug disposition will be integrated into the wide range of resistance mechanisms to anticancer agents with particular emphasis on targeted protein kinase inhibitors. Six rules will be established: 1. There is a high variability of extracellular/intracellular drug level ratios; 2. There are three main systems involved in intratumoral drug disposition that are composed of SLC, ABC and XME enzymes; 3. There is a synergistic interplay between these three systems; 4. In cancer subclones, there is a strong genomic instability that leads to a highly variable expression of SLC, ABC or XME enzymes; 5. Tumor-expressed metabolizing enzymes play a role in tumor-specific ADME and cell survival and 6. These three systems are involved in the appearance of resistance (transient event) or in the resistance itself. In addition, this article will investigate whether the overexpression of some ABC and XME systems in cancer cells is just a random consequence of DNA/chromosomal instability, hypo- or hypermethylation and microRNA deregulation, or a more organized modification induced by transposable elements. Experiments will also have to establish if these tumor-expressed enzymes participate in cell metabolism or in tumor-specific ADME or if they are only markers of clonal evolution and genomic deregulation. Eventually, the review will underline that the fate of anticancer agents in cancer cells should be more thoroughly investigated from drug discovery to clinical studies. Indeed, inhibition of tumor expressed metabolizing enzymes could strongly increase drug disposition, specifically in the target cells resulting in more efficient therapies.

Physiology and transcriptome of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-degrading Sphingomonas sp. LH128 after long-term starvation.

The survival, physiology and gene expression profile of the phenanthrene-degrading Sphingomonas sp. LH128 was examined after an extended period of complete nutrient starvation and compared with a non-starved population that had been harvested in exponential phase. After 6 months of starvation in an isotonic solution, only 5 % of the initial population formed culturable cells. Microscopic observation of GFP fluorescent cells, however, suggested that a larger fraction of cells (up to 80 %) were still alive and apparently had entered a viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state. The strain displayed several cellular and genetic adaptive strategies to survive long-term starvation. Flow cytometry, microscopic observation and fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis showed a reduction in cell size, a change in cell shape and an increase in the degree of membrane fatty acid saturation. Transcriptome analysis showed decreased expression of genes involved in ribosomal protein biosynthesis, chromosomal replication, cell division and aromatic catabolism, increased expression of genes involved in regulation of gene expression and efflux systems, genetic translocations, and degradation of rRNA and fatty acids. Those phenotypic and transcriptomic changes were not observed after 4 h of starvation. Despite the starvation situation, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) catabolic activity was immediate upon exposure to phenanthrene. We conclude that a large fraction of cells maintain viability after an extended period of starvation apparently due to tuning the expression of a wide variety of cellular processes. Due to these survival attributes, bacteria of the genus Sphingomonas, like strain LH128, could be considered as suitable targets for use in remediation of nutrient-poor PAH-contaminated environments.

Ubiquitin- and ubiquitin-like proteins-conjugating enzymes (E2s) in breast cancer.

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy in women and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Sub-types of breast cancer defined by the expression of steroid hormones and Her2/Neu oncogene have distinct prognosis and undergo different therapies. Besides differing in their phenotype, sub-types of breast cancer display various molecular lesions that participate in their pathogenesis. BRCA1 is one of the common hereditary cancer predisposition genes and encodes for an ubiquitin ligase. Ubiquitin ligases or E3 enzymes participate together with ubiquitin activating enzyme and ubiquitin conjugating enzymes in the attachment of ubiquitin (ubiquitination) in target proteins. Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification regulating multiple cell functions. It also plays important roles in carcinogenesis in general and in breast carcinogenesis in particular. Ubiquitin conjugating enzymes are a central component of the ubiquitination machinery and are often perturbed in breast cancer. This paper will discuss ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins conjugating enzymes participating in breast cancer pathogenesis, their relationships with other proteins of the ubiquitination machinery and their role in phenotype of breast cancer sub-types.

Species differences in the response of liver drug-metabolizing enzymes to (S)-4-O-tolylsulfanyl-2-(4-trifluormethyl-phenoxy)-butyric acid (EMD 392949) in vivo and in vitro.

Induction of drug-metabolizing enzymes (DMEs) is highly species-specific and can lead to drug-drug interaction and toxicities. In this series of studies we tested the species specificity of the antidiabetic drug development candidate and mixed peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha/gamma agonist (S)-4-O-tolylsulfanyl-2-(4-trifluormethyl-phenoxy)-butyric acid (EMD 392949, EMD) with regard to the induction of gene expression and activities of DMEs, their regulators, and typical PPAR target genes. EMD clearly induced PPARalpha target genes in rats in vivo and in rat hepatocytes but lacked significant induction of DMEs, except for cytochrome P450 (P450) 4A. CYP2C and CYP3A were consistently induced in livers of EMD-treated monkeys. Interestingly, classic rodent peroxisomal proliferation markers were induced in monkeys after 17 weeks but not after a 4-week treatment, a fact also observed in human hepatocytes after 72 h but not 24 h of EMD treatment. In human hepatocyte cultures, EMD showed similar gene expression profiles and induction of P450 activities as in monkeys, indicating that the monkey is predictive for human P450 induction by EMD. In addition, EMD induced a similar gene expression pattern as the PPARalpha agonist fenofibrate in primary rat and human hepatocyte cultures. In conclusion, these data showed an excellent correlation of in vivo data on DME gene expression and activity levels with results generated in hepatocyte monolayer cultures, enabling a solid estimation of human P450 induction. This study also clearly highlighted major differences between primates and rodents in the regulation of major inducible P450s, with evidence of CYP3A and CYP2C inducibility by PPARalpha agonists in monkeys and humans.

Normal weight obesity: relationship with lipids, glycaemic status, liver enzymes and inflammation

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Normal weight obesity (NWO) is defined as an excessive body fat associated with a normal body mass index (BMI) and has been associated with early inflammation, but its relationship with cardiovascular risk factors await investigation. METHODS AND RESULTS: Cross-sectional study including 3213 women and 2912 men aged 35-75 years to assess the clinical characteristics of NWO in Lausanne, Switzerland. Body fat was assessed by bioimpedance. NWO was defined as a BMI<25 kg/m(2) and a % body fat ≥66(th) gender-specific percentiles. The prevalence of NWO was 5.4% in women and less than 3% in men, so the analysis was restricted to women. NWO women had a higher % of body fat than overweight women. After adjusting for age, smoking, educational level, physical activity and alcohol consumption, NWO women had higher blood pressure and lipid levels and a higher prevalence of dyslipidaemia (odds-ratio=1.90 [1.34-2.68]) and fasting hyperglycaemia (odds-ratio=1.63 [1.10-2.42]) than lean women, whereas no differences were found between NWO and overweight women. Conversely, no differences were found between NWO and lean women regarding levels of CRP, adiponectin and liver markers (alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and gamma glutamyl transferase). Using other definitions of NWO led to similar conclusions, albeit some differences were no longer significant. CONCLUSION: NWO is almost nonexistent in men. Women with NWO present with higher cardiovascular risk factors than lean women, while no differences were found for liver or inflammatory markers. Specific screening of NWO might be necessary in order to implement cardiovascular prevention.

Interactions between feather-degrading bacteria and an avian host : zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata)

Abstract: Birds harbor a variety of bacteria on their plumage, some of which can degrade feathers in vitro. Whether these keratinolytic bacteria are active on live birds and can effect feather degradation on birds is debatable. The effect of such bacteria on the body condition and behavior of birds, is unknown. Using a community of feather-degrading bacteria (EB), we investigate the interaction between the activity and load of such bacteria, on the morphology, body condition, and behavior of zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). In Chapter 2, we find that the elevated loads of such microbes lead to a reduction in the expression of morphological traits, such as male bill color (a sexually selected trait) and uropygial gland volume, without reducing body mass, or evoking a cellular immune response. We also suggest the presence of a carotenoid based defense response in hosts, to such elevated loads of microbes and document a sex-based difference in the source of carotenoids used for such a response. In Chapter 3, we investigated the effect of EB loads on male mate choice of zebra finches, wherein male choice of females with elevated and un-altered bacterial loads, varied with male size. We found that larger males preferred females with higher bacterial load and smaller males preferred females with lower bacterial load. Chapter 4 demonstrates that the presence of melanin in feathers reduces the growth and activity of the community of feather-degrading bacteria (EB) and that the EB community can effect feather degradation in humid conditions, without broth. Additional results also demonstrate that the EB community consists of bacteria that can attach themselves to feathers on live birds and those that can live freely on avian plumage. Finally, chapter 5 demonstrates that the self-maintenance, social and sexual behaviors of birds are implicated in the infection and horizontal transmission of bacteria. It also suggests a linked oral - faecal - genital mode of transmission of pathogens in birds. These results demonstrate that differential loads of normal flora of vertebrate hosts can effect changes in their morphology and behavior. They also shed light on the role of feather-degrading bacteria in the evolution of melanin polymorphism in birds and suggest that bacteria can be active on live birds. This thesis also highlights the importance of social and, sexual behaviors of birds, in epidemiology. Résumé: Les Oiseaux ont dans leur plumage diverses bactéries dont certaines dégradent les plumes in vitro, néanmoins. Il n'est pas clair, au vu de précédentes études, si ces bactéries kératinolytiques sont actives sur des oiseaux vivants, et si celles-ci dégradent effectivement le plumage de leur hôte, L'effet de ces bactéries sur la condition corporelle ainsi que le comportement des oiseaux n'est pas connu. A l'aide d'une communauté de bactéries dégradant les plumes (EB), non pathogènes, nous examinons les interactions entre l'activité et la charge bactérienne sur la morphologie, la condition corporelle et le comportement du diamant mandarins (Taeniopygia guttata). Dans le chapitre 2, nous montrons qu'une charge élevée de ces microbes mène à une réduction de l'expression de certains traits morphologiques, tels que la couleur du bec chez le mâle (un trait soumis à sélection sexuelle), ainsi que le volume de la glande uropygienne, sans qu'il y ait une réduction de la masse corporelle, ni déclenchement d'une réponse immune cellulaire. Nos données suggèrent la présence d'une défense chez l'hôte à des charges élevées de bactéries basée sur la présence de caroténoïdes. Nous montrons, de plus une différence liée au sexe dans la source des caroténoïdes utilisé pour cette réponse. Dans le chapitre 3 nous examinons l'influence de la charge bactérienne EB sur le choix des mâles chez le diamant mandarins. Des femelles avec une charge bactérienne normale et augmentée sont choisies par les mâles et ce choix varie avec la taille des mâles. Nous avons mis en évidence que les grands mâles préfèrent les femelles avec une charge bactérienne plus élevée. Les petits mâles préfèrent les femelles avec une charge bactérienne réduite. Le chapitre 4 démontre que la présence de mélanine dans les plumes réduit la croissance et l'activité de la communauté de bactéries dégradant le plumage (EB), et que cette communauté EB peut dégrader les plumes dans des conditions humides, sans milieu de culture liquide. De plus nous montrons que cette communauté consiste en des bactéries qui peuvent s'attacher sur les plumes d'oiseaux vivants ainsi que des bactéries libres. Pour finir nous montrons dans le chapitre 5 que la maintenance corporelle, l'interaction sociale et le comportement sexuel de ces oiseaux sont impliqués dans l'infection et la transmission horizontale de ces bactéries. Nos données suggèrent une transmission orale-fécale-génitale des pathogènes chez les oiseaux. Ces résultats montrent que des charges différentes de la flore bactérienne habituelle et non pathogène de vertébrés peuvent affecter leur morphologie et leur comportement. Ils éclaircissent également le rôle des bactéries dégradant les plumes dans l'évolution du polymorphisme mélanique chez les oiseaux et suggèrent que ces bactéries peuvent être actives sur des oiseaux vivants. Cette thèse souligne également l'importance du comportement social et sexuel des oiseaux dans l'épidémiologie.

Organization of lin genes and IS6100 among different strains of hexachlorocyclohexane-degrading Sphingomonas paucimobilis: evidence for horizontal gene transfer.

The organization of lin genes and IS6100 was studied in three strains of Sphingomonas paucimobilis (B90A, Sp+, and UT26) which degraded hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers but which had been isolated at different geographical locations. DNA-DNA hybridization data revealed that most of the lin genes in these strains were associated with IS6100, an insertion sequence classified in the IS6 family and initially found in Mycobacterium fortuitum. Eleven, six, and five copies of IS6100 were detected in B90A, Sp+, and UT26, respectively. IS6100 elements in B90A were sequenced from five, one, and one regions of the genomes of B90A, Sp+, and UT26, respectively, and were found to be identical. DNA-DNA hybridization and DNA sequencing of cosmid clones also revealed that S. paucimobilis B90A contains three and two copies of linX and linA, respectively, compared to only one copy of these genes in strains Sp+ and UT26. Although the copy number and the sequence of the remaining genes of the HCH degradative pathway (linB, linC, linD, and linE) were nearly the same in all strains, there were striking differences in the organization of the linA genes as a result of replacement of portions of DNA sequences by IS6100, which gave them a strange mosaic configuration. Spontaneous deletion of linD and linE from B90A and of linA from Sp+ occurred and was associated either with deletion of a copy of IS6100 or changes in IS6100 profiles. The evidence gathered in this study, coupled with the observation that the G+C contents of the linA genes are lower than that of the remaining DNA sequence of S. paucimobilis, strongly suggests that all these strains acquired the linA gene through horizontal gene transfer mediated by IS6100. The association of IS6100 with the rest of the lin genes further suggests that IS6100 played a role in shaping the current lin gene organization.

Augmented myocardial methionine-enkephalin in a murine model of cardiac angiotensin II-overexpression.

INTRODUCTION: The endogenous opioid system has been reported to interact with both the cardiac sympathetic and renin-angiotensin systems in exerting a local regulatory action on the heart. The goal of this investigation was to examine how cardiac levels of enkephalin production are altered in the development of normotensive primary hypertrophy due to elevated intra-cardiac angiotensin II (Ang II) production. METHODS: Atrial and ventricular methionine-enkephalin (ME) levels were measured by quantitative radioimmunoassay in 14 and 28-week-old male transgenic mice (TG1306/1R) and control mice. The TG1306/1R exhibit cardiac specific Ang II overexpression and cardiac hypertrophy, but not hypertension. RESULTS: TG1306/1R mice had significantly higher heart/body weight ratios (15-20%) than control littermates at both 14 (p=0.02) and 28 weeks (p=0.04). Relative to controls, ME content was significantly elevated (approximately two-fold) in atria and ventricles in the older 28-week TG1306/1R mice only. A significant inverse correlation between heart size and ME level was observed for 28-week TG1306/1R only. CONCLUSIONS: We have provided evidence that a marked elevation of myocardial enkephalin level is observed in the established (but not early) phase of cardiac hypertrophy associated with cardiac-specific Ang II-overexpression. This study identifies a potentially important relationship between two endogenous peptidergic signalling systems involved in the regulation of growth and function of the hypertrophic heart.

FtsZ-independent septal recruitment and function of cell wall remodelling enzymes in chlamydial pathogens.

The nature and assembly of the chlamydial division septum is poorly defined due to the paucity of a detectable peptidoglycan (PG)-based cell wall, the inhibition of constriction by penicillin and the presence of coding sequences for cell wall precursor and remodelling enzymes in the reduced chlamydial (pan-)genome. Here we show that the chlamydial amidase (AmiA) is active and remodels PG in Escherichia coli. Moreover, forward genetics using an E. coli amidase mutant as entry point reveals that the chlamydial LysM-domain protein NlpD is active in an E. coli reporter strain for PG endopeptidase activity (ΔnlpI). Immunolocalization unveils NlpD as the first septal (cell-wall-binding) protein in Chlamydiae and we show that its septal sequestration depends on prior cell wall synthesis. Since AmiA assembles into peripheral clusters, trimming of a PG-like polymer or precursors occurs throughout the chlamydial envelope, while NlpD targets PG-like peptide crosslinks at the chlamydial septum during constriction.