Alcohol consumption and social inequality at the individual and country levels--results from an international study.

BACKGROUND: International comparisons of social inequalities in alcohol use have not been extensively investigated. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of country-level characteristics and individual socio-economic status (SES) on individual alcohol consumption in 33 countries. METHODS: Data on 101,525 men and women collected by cross-sectional surveys in 33 countries of the GENACIS study were used. Individual SES was measured by highest attained educational level. Alcohol use measures included drinking status and monthly risky single occasion drinking (RSOD). The relationship between individuals' education and drinking indicators was examined by meta-analysis. In a second step the individual level data and country data were combined and tested in multilevel models. As country level indicators we used the Purchasing Power Parity of the gross national income, the Gini coefficient and the Gender Gap Index. RESULTS: For both genders and all countries higher individual SES was positively associated with drinking status. Also higher country level SES was associated with higher proportions of drinkers. Lower SES was associated with RSOD among men. Women of higher SES in low income countries were more often RSO drinkers than women of lower SES. The opposite was true in higher income countries. CONCLUSION: For the most part, findings regarding SES and drinking in higher income countries were as expected. However, women of higher SES in low and middle income countries appear at higher risk of engaging in RSOD. This finding should be kept in mind when developing new policy and prevention initiatives.

Santé buccale: déterminants sociaux d'un terrain majeur des inégalités [Oral health: social determinants of a health inequality]

The oral health of disadvantaged social groups is worse at all the ages than that of the favored groups. If tooth decay prevalence decreases, this disease is still unequally distributed: 20% of the children, those with the weakest socio-economic statute (SES), concentrate 60% of the decays. Edentulism strikes significantly more people with weak SES. The inequalities of oral health reflect those of general health. Evidence of the inequalities in oral health is exposed even in the developed countries. Different models of intervention are presented: risk groups identification and targeting by specific programs; oral health community approach which includes socio-economic and public health measures aiming all the population; insurance approach to be combined with the preceding ones.

Wage cuts and managers' empathy: How a positive emotion can contribute to positive organizational ethics in difficult times

Using the lens of positive organizational ethics, we theorized that empathy affects decisions in ethical dilemmas that concern the well-being of not only the organization but also other stakeholders. We hypothesized and found that empathetic managers were less likely to comply with requests by an authority figure to cut the wages of their employees than were non-empathetic managers. However, when an authority figure requested to hold wages constant, empathy did not affect wage cut decisions. These findings imply that empathy can serve as a safeguard for ethical decision making in organizations during trying times without generally undermining organizational effectiveness. We conclude by discussing the implications of our research.

Inequality measurement for ordered response health data

When health status is an ordered response variable, Allison and Foster (2004)postulate that a distribution Q exhibits more inequality than a distribution P if Q is obtained from P via a sequence of median preserving spreads. This paper introduces a parametric family of inequality indices which are founded on the Allison and Foster ordering. [Authors]

Inequality measurement for ordered response health data

Because self-reported health status [SRHS] is an ordered response variable, inequality measurement for SRHS data requires a numerical scale for converting individual responses into a summary statistic. The choice of scale is however problematic, since small variations in the numerical scale may reverse the ordering of a given pair of distributions of SRHS data in relation to conventional inequality indices such as the variance. This paper introduces a parametric family of inequality indices, founded on an inequality ordering proposed by Allison and Foster [Allison, R.A., Foster, J., 2004. Measuring health inequalities using qualitative data. Journal of Health Economics 23, 505-524], which satisfy a suitable invariance property with respect to the choice of numerical scale. Several key members of the parametric family are also derived, and an empirical application using data from the Swiss Health Survey illustrates the proposed methodology. [Authors]

Décision de baisser les salaires ou non: Le rôle de l'empathie face à une recommandation d'un supérieur hiérarchique (The role of Empathy in wage cut decisions).

En entreprise, les supérieurs hiérarchiques ont une influence non négligeable sur la prise de décision de leurs subordonnés. Ces derniers tendent à se conformer à l'avis de leur supérieur pour prendre leurs décisions. Toutefois, cette conformité des subordonnés à l'avis de leur supérieur peut devenir un problème lorsque l'avis reçu est questionnable d'un point de vue éthique. Les études antérieures menées à ce sujet ont démontré que le contenu n'a pas d'impact, c'est-à-dire que du moment qu'un avis est donné par un supérieur hiérarchique, les subordonnés tendent à se conformer à cet avis quelque soit son contenu. Dans la présente expérience, nous nous sommes intéressés à ce phénomène de conformité dans une prise de décision ayant des conséquences sur des personnes. En particulier, nous avons étudié le rôle de l'empathie, définit comme l'habilité de ressentir les émotions des autres ou de se mettre à leur place. Notre première hypothèse concerne l'effet principal de l'avis du supérieur : les participants tiennent compte de l'avis de leur supérieur dans leur prise de décision. Notre seconde hypothèse concerne le rôle modérateur de l'empathie: les participants haut en empathie sont moins sensibles à l'avis de leur supérieur que les participants bas en empathie étant donné qu'ils anticipent les conséquences de leur décision vis-à-vis des personnes concernées. Cent-douze étudiants ont participé à un exercice de mise en situation. Dans la peau d'un chef de Département d'une entreprise, ils devaient entre autres réfléchir au problème du niveau des salaires du personnel peu qualifié et en particulier au fait que cette catégorie de salariés était surpayée par rapport à ce qui se pratiquait sur le marché du travail. Cette expérience était composée de deux conditions, où l'avis du supérieur était manipulé. Dans la condition 1, l'avis du supérieur était de baisser les salaires, alors que dans la condition 2 l'avis était de garder les salaires constants. Les résultats ont confirmé nos hypothèses. Les participants recevant l'avis de leur supérieur de baisser les salaires ont effectivement pris la décision de baisser les salaires. Il a aussi été démontré que le niveau d'empathie modère cette relation. Les participants haut en empathie ont eu tendance à ne pas suivre l'avis donné contrairement aux participants bas en empathie. Cela démontre ainsi l'influence que peut avoir le contexte sur les individus et leur prise de décision mais aussi que les caractéristiques personnelles ont une influence non négligeable.

Labor Market Signaling and Self-Confidence: Wage Compression and the Gender Pay Gap

I extend Spence's signaling model by assuming that some workers are overconfident-they underestimate their marginal cost of acquiring education-and some are underconfident. Firms cannot observe workers' productive abilities and beliefs but know the fractions of high-ability, overconfident, and underconfident workers. I find that biased beliefs lower the wage spread and compress the wages of unbiased workers. I show that gender differences in self-confidence can contribute to the gender pay gap. If education raises productivity, men are overconfident, and women underconfident, then women will, on average, earn less than men. Finally, I show that biased beliefs can improve welfare.