Melanism, body condition and elevational distribution in the asp viper

Alternative morphotypes can confer important selective advantages in different habitats, whereas they can be penalized in other circumstances. In ectotherms, such as reptiles, the body colour can have direct effects on numerous aspects of their existence, such as thermoregulation or prey-predator interactions. Darker melanic individuals show lower skin reflectance and consequently heat up more rapidly and maintain optimal body temperatures more easily than lighter coloured individuals. As a consequence, melanistic individuals of diurnal species in cool areas may exhibit higher body condition, growth rate, survival and fecundity than lighter coloured individuals. Such advantages of dark coloration may be counterbalanced by a lower crypsis to predators and a decreased foraging efficiency. We investigated, in two montane populations of asp vipers Vipera aspis, the relationship between (1) colour polymorphism and body condition and length and (2) the coloration of individuals and their elevational distribution. We showed significant relationships between (1) the coloration, body condition and sex of individuals; (2) sexes and reproductive state and morph frequency; and (3) colour morphs that were distributed following an elevational gradient. Hence, colour polymorphism plays an important role in the ecology and evolution of the asp viper and is maintained through differential selective pressures.

Molecular phylogeography of the nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes, Linnaeus (1758)): evidence for high genetic diversity and multiple refugia in the Balkan peninsula

The nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes) occurs in a large part of the south-eastern Europe and Asia Minor. Phylogenetic relationships were reconstructed for a total of 59 specimens using sequences from three mitochondrial regions (16S and cytochrome b genes, and control region, totalling 2308 bp). A considerable number of clades were observed within this species, showing a large genetic diversity within the Balkan peninsula. Splitting of the basal clades was evaluated to about 4 million years ago. Genetic results are in contradiction with presently accepted taxonomy based on morphological characters: V. a. gregorwallneri and V. a. ruffoi do not display any genetic difference compared with the nominotypic subspecies (V. a. ammodytes), involving that these subspecies can be regarded as synonyms. High genetic divergence in the central part of the Balkan peninsula is not concordant with low morphological differentiation. Finally, the extensive genetic diversity within the Balkan peninsula and the colonisation routes are discussed

Diversifying selection and color-biased dispersal in the asp viper.

BACKGROUND: The presence of intraspecific color polymorphism can have multiple impacts on the ecology of a species; as a consequence, particular color morphs may be strongly selected for in a given habitat type. For example, the asp viper (Vipera aspis) shows a high level of color polymorphism. A blotched morph (cryptic) is common throughout its range (central and western Europe), while a melanistic morph is frequently found in montane populations, presumably for thermoregulatory reasons. Besides, rare atypical uniformly colored individuals are known here and there. Nevertheless, we found in a restricted treeless area of the French Alps, a population containing a high proportion (>50%) of such specimens. The aim of the study is to bring insight into the presence and function of this color morph by (i) studying the genetic structure of these populations using nine microsatellite markers, and testing for (ii) a potential local diversifying selection and (iii) differences in dispersal capacity between blotched and non-blotched vipers. RESULTS: Our genetic analyses support the occurrence of local diversifying selection for the non-blotched phenotype. In addition, we found significant color-biased dispersal, blotched individuals dispersing more than atypical individuals. CONCLUSION: We hypothesize that, in this population, the non-blotched phenotype possess an advantage over the typical one, a phenomenon possibly due to a better background matching ability in a more open habitat. In addition, color-biased dispersal might be partly associated with the observed local diversifying selection, as it can affect the genetic structure of populations, and hence the distribution of color morphs.

Thermoregulation and microhabitat choice in the polymorphic asp viper (Vipera aspis).

In ectotherms, thermoregulation strongly depends on environmental conditions, as well as on intrinsic factors, such as skin colour. Indeed, due to its physical properties, melanin pigments allow melanistic morphs to benefit of a more efficient thermoregulation compared to non-melanistic ones. Despite thermal benefits of melanism have often been highlighted under experimental conditions, such field data remain scarce. In this study, we investigated the influence of colouration on body temperature and microhabitat choice in a montane population of colour polymorphic asp viper (Vipera aspis) characterized by a strong presence of melanism (64%). Results highlighted a difference in internal body temperature, but only within gravid females, with melanistic individuals having higher body temperatures compared to non-melanistic ones. No differences were found when considering both sexes. We also showed that melanistic and non-melanistic vipers were found in different microhabitat types, i.e. melanistic snakes used areas marked by a scarcer sun exposure and by higher vegetation cover compared to non-melanistic ones. This result has important implications. Indeed, besides providing a possible explanation for the lack of difference in body temperature (except for gravid females), it confirms that melanistic individuals can potentially use their efficient thermoregulation in order to inhabit less exposed and thermally unfavourable microhabitats.

Influence of climate on the presence of colour polymorphism in two montane reptile species.

The coloration of ectotherms plays an important role in thermoregulation processes. Dark individuals should heat up faster and be able to reach a higher body temperature than light individuals and should therefore have benefits in cool areas. In central Europe, montane local populations of adder (Vipera berus) and asp viper (Vipera aspis) exhibit a varying proportion of melanistic individuals. We tested whether the presence of melanistic V. aspis and V. berus could be explained by climatic conditions. We measured the climatic niche position and breadth of monomorphic (including strictly patterned individuals) and polymorphic local populations, calculated their niche overlap and tested for niche equivalency and similarity. In accordance with expectations, niche overlap between polymorphic local populations of both species is high, and even higher than that of polymorphic versus monomorphic montane local populations of V. aspis, suggesting a predominant role of melanism in determining the niche of ectothermic vertebrates. However, unexpectedly, the niche of polymorphic local populations of both species is narrower than that of monomorphic ones, indicating that colour polymorphism does not always enable the exploitation of a greater variability of resources, at least at the intraspecific level. Overall, our results suggest that melanism might be present only when the thermoregulatory benefit is higher than the cost of predation.

Phylogéographie des principales vipères européennes (Vipera ammodytes, V. aspis et V. berus), structuration génétique et multipaternité chez Vipera berus

Résumé: Les vipères du genre Vipera sont des serpents venimeux distribués dans la totalité du Paléarctique. Malgré cette répartition considérable, elles sont extrêmement menacées, leur déclin étant principalement dû à la destruction et à la fragmentation de leur habitat ainsi qu'à la persécution humaine. Afin d'apporter de nouveaux éléments dans le contexte de la protection de ce groupe de reptiles, nous avons utilisé durant ce travail de thèse différents marqueurs moléculaires pour étudier la structuration génétique à petite et à large échelle chez trois espèces appartenant au genre Vipera. La première étude, une phylogéographie moléculaire de la vipère ammodytes (Vipera ammodytes), a montré dans l'ensemble de l'aire de répartition une forte structuration génétique provenant d'isolements antérieures au Pléistocène. La présence d'un nombre important de clades dans le centre des Balkans suggère que cette région a fourni de nombreux refuges isolés durant les glaciations. Ces dernières ont également eu un impact considérable sur la diversité génétique au sein de la majorité des clades, suite à d'importants goulots d'étranglement durant le Pléistocène. L'étude de la phylogéographie de la vipère aspic (Vipera aspis) a montré une différenciation génétique entre les populations présentes de chaque côté des Alpes, mais également une forte structuration interne avec la mise en évidence d'un refuge en France. Cette étude est la première à établir clairement l'utilisation d'un refuge français pour un vertébré terrestre. La troisième partie de cette thèse a étudié la phylogéographie de la vipère péliade (Vipera berus), espèce cible de ce travail. En plus de la mise en évidence d'un groupe génétique inattendu (localisé dans le nord de l'Italie, le sud de l'Autriche, le nord de la Slovénie et l'extrême sud-est de la Suisse), la variabilité génétique au sein du groupe nordique (comprenant les animaux de l'entier de l'aire de répartition de l'espèce à l'exception des individus du groupe italien et les animaux provenant des Balkans) est suffisamment importante pour conclure à l'utilisation de refuges glaciaires nordiques durant les dernières glaciations, en complément des refuges habituellement décrits pour la majorité des espèces animales (soit les péninsules ibérique, italienne et balakanique). Ces résultats nous ont conduit à effectuer une étude morphologique (quatrième partie) comparant les vipères péliades du "clade italien" et du "clade nordique" décrits ci-dessus. Seules de petites différences morphologiques ont pu être mises en évidence, malgré une séparation de ces groupes estimée à plus d'un million d'années. Une étude à plus petite échelle, centrée sur le Massif jurassien et certaines populations alpines et françaises, a été entreprise afin d'estimer leur diversité génétique et d'évaluer la structuration génétique entre les populations à l'aide de marqueurs microsatellites (cinquième partie). Une importante structuration a été observée entre les populations distantes de plus de 3 kilomètres, la structuration entre les populations plus proches étant plus limitée. De plus, une diversité génétique plus faible dans les populations jurassiennes et alpines comparativement aux populations du massif central et de la côte atlantique a été constatée, probablement due à une perte de diversité génétique lors de la recolonisation post-glaciaire. La sixième étude s'est intéressée au succès reproducteur des mâles de vipères péliades en conditions naturelles. Une corrélation entre la taille des mâles et leur succès reproducteur a été relevée, les individus de plus grande taille ayant un succès reproducteur plus élevé. Le taux de multipaternité a aussi été investigué, démontrant que la proportion de pontes issues de plusieurs pères est élevée (69%) malgré la faible densité de vipères observée sur le site étudié. Finalement, aucun lien entre le nombre de pères au sein d'une ponte et la mortalité des jeunes à la naissance n'a pu être mis en évidence, contrastant avec des travaux précédents. En conclusion, l'observation de la structuration très marquée chez les vipères péliades devrait permettre d'affiner les méthodes de protection de l'espèce dans le massif jurassien. A plus large échelle, l'importante structuration génétique observée chez les vipères ammodytes, aspic et péliade résultant de l'utilisation de nombreux refuges glaciaires, complémentaires aux refuges habituellement utilisés par les espèces animales, démontre l'intérêt de l'analyse phylogéographique des reptiles pour la compréhension des phénomènes de colonisation et d' extinction des populations durant la fin du Tertiaire et le Quaternaire. La mise en évidence chez les différentes espèces de vipères étudiées de nombreux groupes génétiques distincts (ESUs) devrait conduire à des modifications de la taxonomie ainsi qu'au statut de protection de ces espèces. Abstract: The vipers of the genus Vipera are venomous snakes widespread throughout the Palaearctic regions. Despite a large distribution area, several species are extremely threatened, especially due to the destruction and fragmentation of their habitats, as well as by human persecution. In order to increase the knowledge on these species and to improve their protection, several molecular markers have been used to investigate the genetic structure on small and large scales, within three species of the genus Vipera. The first study, a molecular phylogeography of the nose-horned viper (Vipera ammodytes), showed a considerable structuring throughout the distribution area, due to isolation into refugia before the Pleistocene. A high number of clades in the centre of the Balkans suggests that this region harboured numerous isolated glacial refugia during the last glaciation. Moreover, low genetic diversity within several clades implies that most populations of nose-horned vipers have suffered bottlenecks during the Pleistocene. The study of the phylogeography of the asp viper (Vipera aspis) showed genetic differentiation between populations on each side of the Alps, as well as considerable internal genetic structure, suggesting the use of a glacial refugium in France. This study is the first to establish firmly the occurrence of a French refugia for a terrestrial vertebrate. The third part of this work involved a phylogeographic study of the adder (Vipera berus), the target species of this thesis. Three clades were revealed: a Balkan clade (corresponding to the subspecies V. b. sachalinensis), an unexpected Italian clade (limited to northern Italy, southern Austria, northern Slovenia and southeasternmost corner of Switzerland) and a Northern clade clade (including adders of the whole distribution area excepted animals from the Balkan and the Italian clades). The genetic variability within the Northern clade is sufficiently high to conclude that a northern glacial refugia during the last glaciation, in addition to those refugia already described for the main species (Iberian, Italian and Balkan peninsula). These results motivated a morphological study (part four) comparing the adders from the Italian and the Northern clades describe above. Only small morphological differences have been found, despite the split between these two clades have taken place more than 1 million years ago. A study on a local scale, focused on the Jura Mountains, on a few populations in the Alps and France was, performed to estimate the genetic diversity and the genetic structure between populations using microsatellite markers (part five). Considerable structure was observed between populations separated by more than 3 kilometres, whereas the structure between closer populations is less marked. Moreover, lower genetic diversity in the populations from Jura Mountains and Alps was noticed compared to populations from Massif Central of Atlantic coast. Such loss of genetic variation probably followed post-glacial recolonisation. The sixth study focused on the reproductive success of male adders in the wild. A positive correlation between body length and reproductive success was observed. Multiple paternity was also observed in most of clutches (69%) despite the low density of adders in the study area. Finally, no relationship was found between the number of fathers in a clutch and the survival of offspring at birth, contradicting previous studies. To conclude, the observation of a significant genetic structure in Vipera berus will enable recommendations to be made to improve protection of this species in the Jura Mountain. On a larger scale, the considerable genetic structure found within Vipera ammdoytes, V. aspis and V. berus, resulting from isolation in additional glacial refugia to those already described for other species, demonstrates the relevance of phylogeographic studies of reptiles to better understand the colonisation and disappearance during the last Tertiary and the Quaternary. The observation of several groups of evolutionary significant units (ESUs) within the three studied species might lead to a revision of the taxonomy, as well as their conservation status.

The dynamics of coexistence: habitat sharing versus segregation patterns among three sympatric montane vipers

Contact zones of closely related and ecologically similar species constitute rare opportunities to study the evolutionary consequences of past speciation processes. They represent natural laboratories in which strong competition could lead to the exclusion of one species, or the various species may switch into distinct ecological niches. Alternatively, if reproductive isolation has not yet been achieved, they may hybridize. We elucidate the degree of taxon integrity by comparing genetics and habitat use of three similar-sized congeneric viper species, Vipera ammodytes, Viperaaspis, and Viperaberus, of Nadiza Valley in western Slovenia. No hybridization was detected for either mitochondrial or nuclear genomes. Similarly, external intermediacy by a single prestudy viper (probably V.ammodytesxV. aspis) indicates that hybridization occasionally occurs, but should be very rare. Populations of the three related viperids are partially allopatric in Nadiza Valley, but they also coexist in a narrow contact zone in the montane grassland along the south-exposed slope of Mount Stol (1673m a.s.l.). Here, the three species that occupy areas in or near patches of rocky microhabitats (e.g. stone piles, slides, and walls) live in syntopy. However, fine-scale measurements of structural components show partial habitat segregation, in which V.berus becomes more dominant at elevations above 1400m and occupies mostly the mountain ridge and north-exposed slopes of Mount Stol, V.aspis occurs below 1300m and is the only species to inhabit stoneless patches of grass and bushes around 1000m and lower, and V.ammodytes occurs at all elevations up to 1500m, but is restricted to a rocky microhabitat. We suggest that a high degree of microstructure divergence, slightly different environmental niches, and a generally favourable habitat for all three viper species, keep the pressure for mis-mating and hybridization low, although mechanisms such as reduced hybrid inferiority and temporal mating segregation cannot yet be excluded.