Cadmium hyperaccumulation and genetic differentiation of Thlaspi caerulescens populations

Although the knowledge on heavy metal hyperaccumulation mechanisms is increasing, the genetic basis of cadmium (Cd) hyperaccurnulation remains to be elucidated. Thlaspi caerulescens is an attractive model since Cd accumulation polymorphism observed in this species suggests genetic differences between populations with low versus high Cd hyperaccumulation capacities. In our study, a methodology is proposed to analyse at a regional scale the genetic differentiation of T. caerulescens natural populations in relation to Cd hyperaccumulation capacity while controlling for different environmental, soil, plant parameters and geographic origins of populations. Twenty-two populations were characterised with AFLP markers and cpDNA polymorphism. Over all loci, a partial Mantel test showed no significant genetic structure with regard to the Cd hyperaccumulation capacity. Nevertheless, when comparing the marker variation to a neutral model, seven AFLP fragments (9% of markers) were identified as presenting particularly high genetic differentiation between populations with low and high Cd hyperaccurnulation capacity. Using simulations, the number of outlier loci was showed to be significantly higher than expected at random. These loci presented a genetic structure linked to Cd hyperaccumulation capacity independently of the geography, environment, soil parameters and Zn, Pb, Fe and Cu concentrations in plants. Using a canonical correspondence analysis, we identified three of them as particularly related to the Cd hyperaccumutation capacity. This study demonstrates that populations with low and high hyperaccurnulation capacities can be significantly distinguished based on molecular data. Further investigations with candidate genes and mapped markers may allow identification and characterization of genomic regions linked to factors involved in Cd hyperaccumulation.

Carbon dioxide in scree slope deposits: A pathway from atmosphere to pedogenic carbonate

A continuum of carbon, from atmospheric CO2 to secondary calcium carbonate, has been studied in a soil associ- ated with scree slope deposits in the Jura Mountains of Switzerland. This approach is based on former studies conducted in other environments. This C continuum includes atmospheric CO2, soil organic matter (SOM), soil CO2, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in soil solutions, and secondary pedogenic carbonate. Soil parameters (pCO2, temperature, pH, Cmin and Corg contents), soil solution chemistry, and isotopic compositions of soil CO2, DIC, carbonate and soil organic matter (δ13CCO2, δ13CDIC, δ13Ccar and δ13CSOM values) have been monitored at different depths (from 20 to 140 cm) over one year. Results demonstrated that the carbon source in secondary carbonate (mainly needle fiber calcite) is related to the dissolved inorganic carbon, which is strongly dependent on soil respiration. The heterotrophic respiration, rather than the limestone parent material, seems to control the pedogenic carbon cycle. The correlation of δ13Corg values with Rock-Eval HI and OI indices demonstrates that, in a soil associated to scree slope deposits, the main process responsible for 13C-enrichment in SOM is related to bac- terial oxidative decarboxylation. Finally, precipitation of secondary calcium carbonate is enhanced by changes in soil pCO2 associated to the convective movement of air masses induced by temperature gradients (heat pump effect) in the highly porous scree slope deposits. The exportation of soil C-leachates from systems such as the one studied in this paper could partially explain the "gap in the European carbon budget" reported by recent studies.

Genetics of cadmium hyperaccumulation variance in Thlaspi caerulescens natural populations from Switzerland

SUMMARY Heavy metal presence in the environment is a serious concern since some of them can be toxic to plants, animals and humans once accumulated along the food chain. Cadmium (Cd) is one of the most toxic heavy metal. It is naturally present in soils at various levels and its concentration can be increased by human activities. Several plants however have naturally developed strategies allowing them to grow on heavy metal enriched soils. One of them consists in the accumulation and sequestration of heavy metals in the above-ground biomass. Some plants present in addition an extreme strategy by which they accumulate a limited number of heavy metals in their shoots in amounts 100 times superior to those expected for a non-accumulating plant in the same conditions. Understanding the genetic basis of the hyperaccumulation trait - particularly for Cd - remains an important challenge which may lead to biotechnological applications in the soil phytoremediation. In this thesis, Thlaspi caerulescens J. & C. Presl (Brassicaceae) was used as a model plant to study the Cd hyperaccumulation trait, owing to its physiological and genetic characteristics. Twenty-four wild populations were sampled in different regions of Switzerland. They were characterized for environmental and soil parameters as well as intrinsic characteristics of plants (i.e. metal concentrations in shoots). They were as well genetically characterized by AFLPs, plastid DNA polymorphism and genes markers (CAPS and microsatellites) mainly developed in this thesis. Some of the investigated genes were putatively linked to the Cd hyperaccumulation trait. Since the study of the Cd hyperaccumulation in the field is important as it allows the identification of patterns of selection, the present work offered a methodology to define the Cd hyperaccumulation capacity of populations from different habitats permitting thus their comparison in the field. We showed that Cd, Zn, Fe and Cu accumulations were linked and that populations with higher Cd hyperaccumulation capacity had higher shoot and reproductive fitness. Using our genetic data, statistical methods (Beaumont & Nichols's procedure, partial Mantel tests) were applied to identify genomic signatures of natural selection related to the Cd hyperaccumulation capacity. A significant genetic difference between populations related to their Cd hyperaccumulation capacity was revealed based on somè specific markers (AFLP and candidate genes). Polymorphism at the gene encoding IRTl (Iron-transporter also participating to the transport of Zn) was suggested as explaining part of the variation in Cd hyperaccumulation capacity of populations supporting previous physiological investigations. RÉSUMÉ La présence de métaux lourds dans l'environnement est un phénomène préoccupant. En effet, certains métaux lourds - comme le cadmium (Cd) -sont toxiques pour les plantes, les animaux et enfin, accumulés le long de la chaîne alimentaire, pour les hommes. Le Cd est naturellement présent dans le sol et sa concentration peut être accrue par différentes activités humaines. Certaines plantes ont cependant développé des stratégies leur permettant de pousser sur des sols contaminés en métaux lourds. Parmi elles, certaines accumulent et séquestrent les métaux lourds dans leurs parties aériennes. D`autres présentent une stratégie encore plus extrême. Elles accumulent un nombre limité de métaux lourds en quantités 100 fois supérieures à celles attendues pour des espèces non-accumulatrices sous de mêmes conditions. La compréhension des bases génétiques de l'hyperaccumulation -particulièrement celle du Cd - représente un défi important avec des applications concrètes en biotechnologies, tout particulièrement dans le but appliqué de la phytoremediation des sols contaminés. Dans cette thèse, Thlaspi caerulescens J. & C. Presl (Brassicaceae) a été utilisé comme modèle pour l'étude de l'hyperaccumulation du Cd de par ses caractéristiques physiologiques et génétiques. Vingt-quatre populations naturelles ont été échantillonnées en Suisse et pour chacune d'elles les paramètres environnementaux, pédologique et les caractéristiques intrinsèques aux plantes (concentrations en métaux lourds) ont été déterminés. Les populations ont été caractérisées génétiquement par des AFLP, des marqueurs chloroplastiques et des marqueurs de gènes spécifiques, particulièrement ceux potentiellement liés à l'hyperaccumulation du Cd (CAPS et microsatellites). La plupart ont été développés au cours de cette thèse. L'étude de l'hyperaccumulation du Cd en conditions naturelles est importante car elle permet d'identifier la marque, éventuelle de sélection naturelle. Ce travail offre ainsi une méthodologie pour définir et comparer la capacité des populations à hyperaccumuler le Cd dans différents habitats. Nous avons montré que les accumulations du Cd, Zn, Fe et Cu sont liées et que les populations ayant une grande capacité d'hyperaccumuler le Cd ont également une meilleure fitness végétative et reproductive. Des méthodes statistiques (l'approche de Beaumont & Nichols, tests de Martel partiels) ont été utilisées sur les données génétiques pour identifier la signature génomique de la sélection naturelle liée à la capacité d'hyperaccumuler le Cd. Une différenciation génétique des populations liée à leur capacité d'hyperaccumuler le Cd a été mise en évidence sur certains marqueurs spécifiques. En accord avec les études physiologiques connues, le polymorphisme au gène codant IRT1 (un transporteur de Fe impliqué dans le transport du Zn) pourrait expliquer une partie de la variance de la capacité des populations à hyperaccumuler le Cd.

Long-term and long range migration of radioisotopes in terrestrial systems : mechanisms of radioisotopes (Cs, Sr, Pu, Am) mobilization in soils

Summary Artificial radionuclides were released in the environment during the atmospheric nuclear weapon tests and after accidental events involving nuclear industries. As a primary receptor of the deposition, the soil is a very sensitive compartment and understanding the interaction and migration of radionuclides within soils allows the development of scenario for the contamination risk of the population and of the environment. Most available field studies on radionuclides in soils only concern one or two isotopes, mostly 137Cs, and few physico-chemical soil parameters. The purpose of this study was a broader understanding of the radioecology of an Alpine valley. In a first part, we aimed to describe the depth distribution of 137Cs, 90Sr, 239+240Pu, and 241Am within different alpine soils and to identify some stable elements as indicators for accumulating layers. In the central part of the study, the goal was to investigate the repartition of ^Sr and 239Pu between the truly dissolved fraction and the colloidal fraction of the soil solutions and to identify the nature of colloids involved in the adsorption of ^Sr and 239Pu. These results were integrated in an "advection- sorption" transport model seeking to explain the migration of 239Pu and 90Sr within the soils and to assess the importance of colloidal transport for these two isotopes. A further aspect studied was the role of the competition between the radioisotopes (137Cs and 90Sr) and their stable chemical analogues (K and Ca) with respect to plant uptake by different plant species. The results on the depth distribution within the soils showed that 137Cs was mostly retained in the topsoil, to the exception of an organic-rich soil (Histosol 2) receiving important surface runoff, where migration down to a depth of 30 cm was observed. 137Cs depth distribution within the soils was similar to unsupported 210Pb depth distribution. The plant uptake of 137Cs clearly depended on the concentration of exchangeable potassium in the soils. Moreover, we showed that the 137Cs uptake by certain species of the taxonomic orders Poales and Rosales was more sensitive to the increase in exchangeable Κ compared to other orders. Strontium-90 was much more mobile in the soils than 137Cs and depth migration and accumulation in specific AI- and Fe-rich layers were found down to 30 cm. Copper and Ni showed accumulations in these same layers, indicating their potential to be used as indicators for the migration of ^Sr within the soils. In addition, we observed a 90Sr activity peak in the topsoil that can be attributable to recycling of 90Sr by plant uptake. We demonstrated for the first time that a part of 90Sr (at least 40%) was associated with the colloids in organic-rich soil solutions. Therefore, we predict a significant effect of the colloidal migration of ^Sr in organic-rich soil solutions. The plant uptake results for 90Sr indicated a phylogenetic effect between Non-Eudicot and Eudicots: the order Poales concentrating much less 90Sr than Eudicots do. Moreover, we were able to demonstrate that the sensitivity of the 90Sr uptake by 5 different Alpine plant species to the amount of exchangeable Ca was species-independent. Plutonium and 241Am accumulated in the second layer of all soils and only a slight migration deeper than 20 cm was observed. Plutonium and 241Am showed a similar depth distribution in the soils. The model results suggested that the present day migration of 239Pu was very slow and that the uptake by plants was negligible. 239Pu activities between 0.01 to 0.08 mBq/L were measured in the bulk soil solutions. Migration of 239Pu with the soil solution is dominated by colloidal transport. We reported strong evidences that humic substances were responsible of the sorption of 239Pu to the colloidal fraction of the soil solutions. This was reflected by the strong correlation between 239Pu concentrations and the content of (colloidal) organic matter in the soil solution. Résumé Certains radioéléments artificiels ont été disséminés dans l'environnement suite aux essais atmosphériques de bombes nucléaires et suite à des accidents impliquant les industries nucléaires. En tant que récepteur primaire de la déposition, le sol est un compartiment sensible et des connaissances sur les interactions et la migration des radioéléments dans le sol permettent de développer des modèles pour estimer la contamination de la population et de l'environnement. Actuellement, la plupart des études de terrain sur ce sujet concernent uniquement un ou deux radioéléments, surtout le 137Cs et peu d'études intègrent les paramètres du sol pour expliquer la migration des radioéléments. Le but général de cette étude était une compréhension étendue de la radio-écologie d'une vallée alpine. Notre premier objectif était de décrire la distribution en profondeur de 137Cs, ^Sr, 239+240pu et 241Am dans différents sols alpins en relation avec des éléments stables du sol, dans le but d'identifier des éléments stables qui pourraient servir d'indicateurs pour des horizons accumulateurs. L'objectif de la deuxième partie, qui était la partie centrale de l'étude, était d'estimer le pourcentage d'activité sous forme colloïdale du 239Pu et du 90Sr dans les solutions des sols. De plus nous avons déterminé la nature des colloïdes impliqués dans la fixation du ^Sr et 239Pu. Nous avons ensuite intégré ces résultats dans un modèle de transport développé dans le but de décrire la migration du 239Pu et 90Sr dans le sol. Finalement, nous avons étudié l'absorption de 137Cs et 90Sr par les plantes en fonction de l'espèce et de la compétition avec leur élément analogue stable (K et Ca). Les résultats sur la migration en profondeur du 137Cs ont montré que ce radioélément était généralement retenu en surface, à l'exception d'un sol riche en matière organique dans lequel nous avons observé une nette migration en profondeur. Dans tous les sols, la distribution en profondeur du 137Cs était corrélée avec la distribution du 210Pb. L'absorption du 137Cs par les plantes, était dépendante de la concentration en Κ échangeable dans le sol, le potassium étant un compétiteur. De plus, nous avons observé que les espèces ne réagissaient pas de la même manière aux variations de la concentration de Κ échangeable. En effet, les espèces appartenant aux ordres des Poales et des Rosales étaient plus sensibles aux variations de potassium échangeable dans le sol. Dans tous les sols Le 90Sr était beaucoup plus mobile que le 137Cs. En effet, nous avons observé des accumulations de 90Sr dans des horizons riches en Fe et Al jusqu'à 30 cm de profondeur. De plus, le Cu et le Ni montraient des accumulations dans les mêmes horizons que le 90Sr, indiquant qu'il pourrait être possible d'utiliser ces deux éléments comme analogues pour la migration du 90Sr. D'après le modèle développé, le pic de 90Sr dans les premiers centimètres du sol peut être attribué à du recyclage par les plantes. Le 90Sr en solution était principalement sous forme dissoute dans des solutions de sols peu organique (entre 60 et 100% de 90Sr dissous). Par contre, dans des solutions organiques, un important pourcentage de 90Sr (plus de 40%) était associé aux colloïdes. La migration colloïdale du 90Sr peut donc être significative dans des solutions organiques. Comme pour le 137Cs, l'absorption du 90Sr par les plantes dépendait de la concentration de son analogue chimique dans la fraction échangeable du sol. Par contre, les espèces de plantes étudiées avaient la même sensibilité aux variations de la concentration du calcium échangeable. Le plutonium et l'américium étaient accumulés dans le deuxième horizon du sol et nous avons observé seulement une faible migration plus profondément que 20 cm. Selon le modèle, la migration actuelle du plutonium est très lente et l'absorption par les plantes semble négligeable. Nous avons mesuré entre 0.01 et 0.08 mBq/L de 239Pu dans les solutions de sol brutes. La migration du plutonium par la solution du sol est due principalement aux colloïdes, probablement de nature humique. Résumé grand public Dans les années 1950 à 1960, l'environnement a été contaminé par des éléments radioactifs (radioéléments) artificiels provenant des essais des armes atomiques et de l'industrie nucléaire. En effet, durant ces années, les premiers essais de bombes atomiques se faisaient dans l'atmosphère, libérant de grandes quantités d'éléments radioactifs. De plus certains accidents impliquant l'industrie nucléaire civile ont contribué à la dissémination d'éléments radioactifs dans l'environnement. Ce fut par exemple le cas de l'accident de la centrale atomique de Tchernobyl en 1986 qui a causé une importante contamination d'une grande partie de l'Europe par le 137Cs. Lorsqu'ils sont libérés dans l'atmosphère, les radioéléments sont dispersés et transportés par les courants atmosphériques, puis peuvent être déposés dans l'environnement, principalement par les précipitations. Une fois déposés sur le sol, les radioéléments vont interagir avec les composants du sol et migrer plus ou moins vite. La connaissance des interactions des éléments radioactifs avec le sol est donc importante pour prédire les risques de contamination de l'environnement et de l'homme. Le but général de ce travail était d'évaluer la migration de différents éléments radioactifs (césium-137, strontium-90, plutonium et américium-241) à travers le sol. Nous avons choisi un site d'étude en milieu alpin (Val Piora, Tessin, Suisse), contaminé en radioéléments principalement par les retombées de l'accident de Tchernobyl et des essais atmosphériques de bombes atomiques. Dans un premier temps, nous avons caractérisé la distribution en profondeur des éléments radioactifs dans le sol et l'avons comparée à divers éléments stables. Cette comparaison nous a permit de remarquer que le cuivre et le nickel s'accumulaient dans les mêmes horizons du sol que le strontium-90 et pourraient donc être utilisés comme analogue pour la migration du strontium-90 dans les sols. Dans la plupart des sols étudiés, la migration du césium-137, du plutonium et de l'américium-241 était lente et ces radioéléments étaient donc accumulés dans les premiers centimètres du sol. Par contre, le strontium-90 a migré beaucoup plus rapidement que les autres radioéléments si bien qu'on observe des accumulations de strontium-90 à plus de 30 cm de profondeur. Les radioéléments migrent dans la solution du sol soit sous forme dissoute, soit sous forme colloïdale, c'est-à-dire associés à des particules de diamètre < Ιμηι. Cette association avec des colloïdes permet à des radioéléments peu solubles, comme le plutonium, de migrer plus rapidement qu'attendu. Nous avons voulu savoir quelle était la part de strontium-90 et plutonium associés à des colloïdes dans la solution du sol. Les résultats ont montré que le plutonium en solution était principalement associé à des colloïdes de type organique. Quant au strontium-90, ce dernier était en partie associé à des colloïdes dans des solutions de sol riches en matière organique, par contre, il était principalement sous forme dissoute dans les solutions de sol peu organiques. L'absorption de radioéléments par les plantes représente une voie importante pour le transfert vers la chaîne alimentaire, par conséquent pour la contamination de l'homme. Nous avons donc étudié le transfert du césium-137 et du strontium-90 de plusieurs sols vers différentes espèces de plantes. Les résultats ont montré que l'absorption des radioéléments par les plantes était liée à la concentration de leur analogue chimique (calcium pour le strontium-90 et potassium pour le césium- 137) dans la fraction échangeable du sol. De plus certaines espèces de plantes accumulent significativement moins de strontium-90.

Atmospheric deposition and migration of artificial radionuclides in Alpine soils (Val Piora, Switzerland) compared to the distribution of selected major and trace elements.

Artificial radionuclides ((137)Cs, (90)Sr, Pu, and (241)Am) are present in soils because of Nuclear Weapon Tests and accidents in nuclear facilities. Their distribution in soil depth varies according to soil characteristics, their own chemical properties, and their deposition history. For this project, we studied the atmospheric deposition of (137)Cs, (90)Sr, Pu, (241)Am, (210)Pb, and stable Pb. We compared the distribution of these elements in soil profiles from different soil types from an alpine Valley (Val Piora, Switzerland) with the distribution of selected major and trace elements in the same soils. Our goals were to explain the distribution of the radioisotopes as a function of soil parameters and to identify stable elements with analogous behaviors. We found that Pu and (241)Am are relatively immobile and accumulate in the topsoil. In all soils, (90)Sr is more mobile and shows some accumulations at depth into Fe-Al rich horizons. This behavior is also observed for Cu and Zn, indicating that these elements may be used as chemical analogues for the migration of (90)Sr into the soil.

Derivation of soil-specific streaming potential electrical parameters from hydrodynamic characteristics of partially saturated soils

Water movement in unsaturated soils gives rise to measurable electrical potential differences that are related to the flow direction and volumetric fluxes, as well as to the soil properties themselves. Laboratory and field data suggest that these so-called streaming potentials may be several orders of magnitudes larger than theoretical predictions that only consider the influence of the relative permeability and electrical conductivity on the self potential (SP) data. Recent work has improved predictions somewhat by considering how the volumetric excess charge in the pore space scales with the inverse of water saturation. We present a new theoretical approach that uses the flux-averaged excess charge, not the volumetric excess charge, to predict streaming potentials. We present relationships for how this effective excess charge varies with water saturation for typical soil properties using either the water retention or the relative permeability function. We find large differences between soil types and the predictions based on the relative permeability function display the best agreement with field data. The new relationships better explain laboratory data than previous work and allow us to predict the recorded magnitudes of the streaming potentials following a rainfall event in sandy loam, whereas previous models predict values that are three orders of magnitude too small. We suggest that the strong signals in unsaturated media can be used to gain information about fluxes (including very small ones related to film flow), but also to constrain the relative permeability function, the water retention curve, and the relative electrical conductivity function.

Comparison of time-lapse GPR data collected under natural and forced infiltration conditions to estimate vadose zone hydraulic parameters

Time-lapse crosshole ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data, collected while infiltration occurs, can provide valuable information regarding the hydraulic properties of the unsaturated zone. In particular, the stochastic inversion of such data provides estimates of parameter uncertainties, which are necessary for hydrological prediction and decision making. Here, we investigate the effect of different infiltration conditions on the stochastic inversion of time-lapse, zero-offset-profile, GPR data. Inversions are performed using a Bayesian Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo methodology. Our results clearly indicate that considering data collected during a forced infiltration test helps to better refine soil hydraulic properties compared to data collected under natural infiltration conditions

Examining the information content of time-lapse crosshole GPR data collected under different infiltration conditions to estimate unsaturated soil hydraulic properties

Time-lapse geophysical data acquired during transient hydrological experiments are being increasingly employed to estimate subsurface hydraulic properties at the field scale. In particular, crosshole ground-penetrating radar (GPR) data, collected while water infiltrates into the subsurface either by natural or artificial means, have been demonstrated in a number of studies to contain valuable information concerning the hydraulic properties of the unsaturated zone. Previous work in this domain has considered a variety of infiltration conditions and different amounts of time-lapse GPR data in the estimation procedure. However, the particular benefits and drawbacks of these different strategies as well as the impact of a variety of key and common assumptions remain unclear. Using a Bayesian Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo stochastic inversion methodology, we examine in this paper the information content of time-lapse zero-offset-profile (ZOP) GPR traveltime data, collected under three different infiltration conditions, for the estimation of van Genuchten-Mualem (VGM) parameters in a layered subsurface medium. Specifically, we systematically analyze synthetic and field GPR data acquired under natural loading and two rates of forced infiltration, and we consider the value of incorporating different amounts of time-lapse measurements into the estimation procedure. Our results confirm that, for all infiltration scenarios considered, the ZOP GPR traveltime data contain important information about subsurface hydraulic properties as a function of depth, with forced infiltration offering the greatest potential for VGM parameter refinement because of the higher stressing of the hydrological system. Considering greater amounts of time-lapse data in the inversion procedure is also found to help refine VGM parameter estimates. Quite importantly, however, inconsistencies observed in the field results point to the strong possibility that posterior uncertainties are being influenced by model structural errors, which in turn underlines the fundamental importance of a systematic analysis of such errors in future related studies.

Controls on 13C and 14C variability in soil CO2

14C dating of groundwater depends on the isotopic composition of both the solid carbonate and the soil CO2 and requires the use of 14C age correction models. To better assess the variability of the 14C activity of soil CO2 (A14Csoil-CO2) and the δ13C of soil CO2 (δ13Csoil-CO2), which are two parameters used in 14C age correction models, we studied the different processes involving carbon isotopes in the soil. The approach used experimental data from two sites in France (Fontainebleau sands and Astian sands) and a steady-state transport model. In most cases, the 14C activity (A14C) of atmospheric CO2 is directly used in the 14C age correction models as the A14Csoil-CO2. However, we demonstrate that since 1950, the evolution of the A14Csoil-CO2 reflects the competition between the fluxes of root-derived CO2 and organic matter-derived CO2. Therefore, the A14Csoil-CO2 must be used to date groundwater that is younger than 60 years old. Moreover, the δ13C of soil CO2 (δ13Csoil-CO2) showed large seasonal variations that must be taken into account in selecting the δ13Csoil-CO2 for 14C age correction models.

Getting the most sulfate from soil: Regulation of sulfate uptake transporters in Arabidopsis.

Sulfur (S) is an essential macronutrient for all living organisms. Plants require large amounts of sulfate for growth and development, and this serves as a major entry point of sulfate into the food web. Plants acquire S in its ionic form from the soil; they have evolved tightly controlled mechanisms for the regulation of sulfate uptake in response to its external and internal availability. In the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the first key step in sulfate uptake is presumed to be carried out exclusively by only two high-affinity sulfate transporters: SULTR1;1 and SULTR1;2. A better understanding of the mode of regulation for these two transporters is crucial because they constitute the first determinative step in balancing sulfate in respect to its supply and demand. Here, we review the recent progress achieved in our comprehension of (i) mechanisms that regulate these two high-affinity sulfate transporters at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, and (ii) their structure-function relationship. Such progress is important to enable biotechnological and agronomic strategies aimed at enhancing sulfate uptake and improving crop yield in S-deficient soils.

Fungi, bacteria and soil pH: the oxalate-carbonate pathway as a model for metabolic interaction

The oxalatecarbonate pathway involves the oxidation of calcium oxalate to low-magnesium calcite and represents a potential long-term terrestrial sink for atmospheric CO2. In this pathway, bacterial oxalate degradation is associated with a strong local alkalinization and subsequent carbonate precipitation. In order to test whether this process occurs in soil, the role of bacteria, fungi and calcium oxalate amendments was studied using microcosms. In a model system with sterile soil amended with laboratory cultures of oxalotrophic bacteria and fungi, the addition of calcium oxalate induced a distinct pH shift and led to the final precipitation of calcite. However, the simultaneous presence of bacteria and fungi was essential to drive this pH shift. Growth of both oxalotrophic bacteria and fungi was confirmed by qPCR on the frc (oxalotrophic bacteria) and 16S rRNA genes, and the quantification of ergosterol (active fungal biomass) respectively. The experiment was replicated in microcosms with non-sterilized soil. In this case, the bacterial and fungal contribution to oxalate degradation was evaluated by treatments with specific biocides (cycloheximide and bronopol). Results showed that the autochthonous microflora oxidized calcium oxalate and induced a significant soil alkalinization. Moreover, data confirmed the results from the model soil showing that bacteria are essentially responsible for the pH shift, but require the presence of fungi for their oxalotrophic activity. The combined results highlight that the interaction between bacteria and fungi is essential to drive metabolic processes in complex environments such as soil.

3D geoelectrical monitoring to follow hydric soil behaviour during rainfall

RESUME Durant les dernières années, les méthodes électriques ont souvent été utilisées pour l'investigation des structures de subsurface. L'imagerie électrique (Electrical Resistivity Tomography, ERT) est une technique de prospection non-invasive et spatialement intégrée. La méthode ERT a subi des améliorations significatives avec le développement de nouveaux algorithmes d'inversion et le perfectionnement des techniques d'acquisition. La technologie multicanale et les ordinateurs de dernière génération permettent la collecte et le traitement de données en quelques heures. Les domaines d'application sont nombreux et divers: géologie et hydrogéologie, génie civil et géotechnique, archéologie et études environnementales. En particulier, les méthodes électriques sont souvent employées dans l'étude hydrologique de la zone vadose. Le but de ce travail est le développement d'un système de monitorage 3D automatique, non- invasif, fiable, peu coûteux, basé sur une technique multicanale et approprié pour suivre les variations de résistivité électrique dans le sous-sol lors d'événements pluvieux. En raison des limitations techniques et afin d'éviter toute perturbation physique dans la subsurface, ce dispositif de mesure emploie une installation non-conventionnelle, où toutes les électrodes de courant sont placées au bord de la zone d'étude. Le dispositif le plus approprié pour suivre les variations verticales et latérales de la résistivité électrique à partir d'une installation permanente a été choisi à l'aide de modélisations numériques. Les résultats démontrent que le dispositif pôle-dipôle offre une meilleure résolution que le dispositif pôle-pôle et plus apte à détecter les variations latérales et verticales de la résistivité électrique, et cela malgré la configuration non-conventionnelle des électrodes. Pour tester l'efficacité du système proposé, des données de terrain ont été collectées sur un site d'étude expérimental. La technique de monitorage utilisée permet de suivre le processus d'infiltration 3D pendant des événements pluvieux. Une bonne corrélation est observée entre les résultats de modélisation numérique et les données de terrain, confirmant par ailleurs que le dispositif pôle-dipôle offre une meilleure résolution que le dispositif pôle-pôle. La nouvelle technique de monitorage 3D de résistivité électrique permet de caractériser les zones d'écoulement préférentiel et de caractériser le rôle de la lithologie et de la pédologie de manière quantitative dans les processus hydrologiques responsables d'écoulement de crue. ABSTRACT During the last years, electrical methods were often used for the investigation of subsurface structures. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) has been reported to be a useful non-invasive and spatially integrative prospecting technique. The ERT method provides significant improvements, with the developments of new inversion algorithms, and the increasing efficiency of data collection techniques. Multichannel technology and powerful computers allow collecting and processing resistivity data within few hours. Application domains are numerous and varied: geology and hydrogeology, civil engineering and geotechnics, archaeology and environmental studies. In particular, electrical methods are commonly used in hydrological studies of the vadose zone. The aim of this study was to develop a multichannel, automatic, non-invasive, reliable and inexpensive 3D monitoring system designed to follow electrical resistivity variations in soil during rainfall. Because of technical limitations and in order to not disturb the subsurface, the proposed measurement device uses a non-conventional electrode set-up, where all the current electrodes are located near the edges of the survey grid. Using numerical modelling, the most appropriate arrays were selected to detect vertical and lateral variations of the electrical resistivity in the framework of a permanent surveying installation system. The results show that a pole-dipole array has a better resolution than a pole-pole array and can successfully follow vertical and lateral resistivity variations despite the non-conventional electrode configuration used. Field data are then collected at a test site to assess the efficiency of the proposed monitoring technique. The system allows following the 3D infiltration processes during a rainfall event. A good correlation between the results of numerical modelling and field data results can be observed since the field pole-dipole data give a better resolution image than the pole-pole data. The new device and technique makes it possible to better characterize the zones of preferential flow and to quantify the role of lithology and pedology in flood- generating hydrological processes.

Maximal Physiological Parameters during Partial Body-Weight Support Treadmill Testing.

PURPOSE: This study investigated maximal cardiometabolic response while running in a lower body positive pressure treadmill (antigravity treadmill (AG)), which reduces body weight (BW) and impact. The AG is used in rehabilitation of injuries but could have potential for high-speed running, if workload is maximally elevated. METHODS: Fourteen trained (nine male) runners (age 27 ± 5 yr; 10-km personal best, 38.1 ± 1.1 min) completed a treadmill incremental test (CON) to measure aerobic capacity and heart rate (V˙O2max and HRmax). They completed four identical tests (48 h apart, randomized order) on the AG at BW of 100%, 95%, 90%, and 85% (AG100 to AG85). Stride length and rate were measured at peak velocities (Vpeak). RESULTS: V˙O2max (mL·kg·min) was similar across all conditions (men: CON = 66.6 (3.0), AG100 = 65.6 (3.8), AG95 = 65.0 (5.4), AG90 = 65.6 (4.5), and AG85 = 65.0 (4.8); women: CON = 63.0 (4.6), AG100 = 61.4 (4.3), AG95 = 60.7 (4.8), AG90 = 61.4 (3.3), and AG85 = 62.8 (3.9)). Similar results were found for HRmax, except for AG85 in men and AG100 and AG90 in women, which were lower than CON. Vpeak (km·h) in men was 19.7 (0.9) in CON, which was lower than every other condition: AG100 = 21.0 (1.9) (P < 0.05), AG95 = 21.4 (1.8) (P < 0.01), AG90 = 22.3 (2.1) (P < 0.01), and AG85 = 22.6 (1.6) (P < 0.001). In women, Vpeak (km·h) was similar between CON (17.8 (1.1) ) and AG100 (19.3 (1.0)) but higher at AG95 = 19.5 (0.4) (P < 0.05), AG90 = 19.5 (0.8) (P < 0.05), and AG85 = 21.2 (0.9) (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: The AG can be used at maximal exercise intensities at BW of 85% to 95%, reaching faster running speeds than normally feasible. The AG could be used for overspeed running programs at the highest metabolic response levels.

Burkholderia sartisoli sp. nov., isolated from a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-contaminated soil.

A Gram-negative, rod-shaped, aerobic bacterium, designated strain RP007(T), was isolated from a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-contaminated soil in New Zealand. Two additional strains were recovered from a compost heap in Belgium (LMG 18808) and from the rhizosphere of maize in the Netherlands (LMG 24204). The three strains had virtually identical 16S rRNA gene sequences and whole-cell protein profiles, and they were identified as members of the genus Burkholderia, with Burkholderia phenazinium as their closest relative. Strain RP007(T) had a DNA G+C content of 63.5 mol% and could be distinguished from B. phenazinium based on a range of biochemical characteristics. Strain RP007(T) showed levels of DNA-DNA relatedness towards the type strain of B. phenazinium and those of other recognized Burkholderia species of less than 30 %. The results of 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, DNA-DNA hybridization experiments and physiological and biochemical tests allowed the differentiation of strain RP007(T) from all recognized species of the genus Burkholderia. Strains RP007(T), LMG 18808 and LMG 24204 are therefore considered to represent a single novel species of the genus Burkholderia, for which the name Burkholderia sartisoli sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is RP007(T) (=LMG 24000(T) =CCUG 53604(T) =ICMP 13529(T)).

Eumelanin-based coloration and fitness parameters in birds: a meta-analysis

Although melanin is the most common pigment in animal integuments, the adaptive function of variation in melanin-based coloration remains poorly understood. The individual fitness returns associated with melanin pigments can be variable across species as these pigments can have physical and biological protective properties and genes involved in melanogenesis may vary in the intensity of pleiotropic effects. Moreover, dark and pale coloration can also enhance camouflage in alternative habitats and melanin-based coloration can be involved in social interactions. We investigated whether darker or paler individuals achieve a higher fitness in birds, a taxon wherein associations between melanin-based coloration and fitness parameters have been studied in a large number of species. A meta-analysis showed that the degree of melanin-based coloration was not significantly associated with laying date, clutch size, brood size, and survival across 26 species. Similar results were found when restricting the analyses to non-sexually dimorphic birds, colour polymorphic and monomorphic species, in passerines and non-passerines and in species for which inter-individual variation in melanism is due to colour intensity. However, eumelanic coloration was positively associated with clutch and brood size in sexually dimorphic species and those that vary in the size of black patches, respectively. Given that greater extent of melanin-based coloration was positively associated with reproductive parameters and survival in some species but negatively in other species, we conclude that in birds the sign and magnitude of selection exerted on melanin-based coloration is species- or trait-specific.