Pharmacogenetic Study on Risperidone Long-Acting Injection: Influence of Cytochrome P450 2D6 and Pregnane X Receptor on Risperidone Exposure and Drug-Induced Side-Effects.

Risperidone is metabolized by polymorphic enzymes, and a large variability in plasma concentration and therapeutic response is observed. Risperidone long-acting injection (RLAI) avoids the first-pass effect, and little is known about the influence of gene polymorphisms involved in its pharmacokinetics. The influence on plasma concentrations of risperidone (RIS), its metabolite 9-hydroxy-risperidone, and on adverse effects were investigated for polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) (*3, *4, *5, *6), CYP3A (CYP3A4*1B, CYP3A4 rs4646437, CYP3A5*3, CYP3A7*1C), ABCB1 (1236C>T, 2677G>T, 3435C>T), NR1/2 coding for pregnane X receptor (rs1523130, rs2472677, rs7643645), and for CYP3A activity measured by a phenotyping test. Forty-two patients with at least 4 consecutive unchanged doses of RLAI were included in a multicenter cross-sectional study. A 55% lower dose-adjusted plasma levels of RIS were observed for CYP2D6 ultrarapid metabolizers (n = 5) as compared with CYP2D6 intermediate metabolizers (P < 0.007). NR1/2 polymorphism (rs7643645A>G) influenced RIS exposure with a 2.8-fold lower active moiety (P = 0.031) in GG compared with the AA genotype. This was confirmed in a second independent cohort (n = 16). Furthermore, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol was positively correlated with CYP3A activity (P = 0.01), and the NR1/2 (rs2472677) polymorphism was associated with different adverse effects including prolactin plasma levels adjusted for age and sex. In conclusion, our results confirmed the influence of CYP2D6 genotype on plasma levels of RIS. This is the first report on the influence of NR1/2 polymorphisms on RLAI exposure and on drug-induced adverse effects. These results should be validated in larger cohorts.

Effect of changes in the deuterium content of drinking water on the hydrogen isotope ratio of urinary steroids in the context of sports drug testing.

The hydrogen isotope ratio (HIR) of body water and, therefore, of all endogenously synthesized compounds in humans, is mainly affected by the HIR of ingested drinking water. As a consequence, the entire organism and all of its synthesized substrates will reflect alterations in the isotope ratio of drinking water, which depends on the duration of exposure. To investigate the effect of this change on endogenous urinary steroids relevant to doping-control analysis the hydrogen isotope composition of potable water was suddenly enriched from -50 to 200 0/00 and maintained at this level for two weeks for two individuals. The steroids under investigation were 5β-pregnane-3α,20α-diol, 5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol, 3α-hydroxy-5α-androstan-17-one (ANDRO), 3α-hydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one (ETIO), 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol, and 5β-androstane-3α,17β-diol (excreted as glucuronides) and ETIO, ANDRO and 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one (excreted as sulfates). The HIR of body water was estimated by determination of the HIR of total native urine, to trace the induced changes. The hydrogen in steroids is partly derived from the total amount of body water and cholesterol-enrichment could be calculated by use of these data. Although the sum of changes in the isotopic composition of body water was 150 0/00, shifts of approximately 30 0/00 were observed for urinary steroids. Parallel enrichment in their HIR was observed for most of the steroids, and none of the differences between the HIR of individual steroids was elevated beyond recently established thresholds. This finding is important to sports drug testing because it supports the intended use of this novel and complementary methodology even in cases where athletes have drunk water of different HIR, a plausible and, presumably, inevitable scenario while traveling.

A gut feeling of the PXR, PPAR and NF-kappaB connection.

Bowel diseases reveal the complex interplay of sensing and signalling pathways in maintaining healthy homeostasis of the intestine. Recent studies of the xenobiotic nuclear receptor, pregnane X receptor and the inflammatory mediator nuclear transcription factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) reveal a functional link between xenobiotic neutralization and inflammation and explain how certain xenobiotics can affect the immune response. Furthermore, another nuclear receptor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR gamma) has been shown to produce beneficial effects in experimental inflammatory bowel diseases by repression of NF-kappaB thereby reducing inflammation, whilst its close relative PPAR beta/delta appears at a central position in signalling pathways involved in the progression of colon cancer. Recently accumulated knowledge on the action of these nuclear receptors and NF-kappaB in intestinal homeostasis may provide the rationale for the development of innovative treatment strategies with selective receptor modulators.

Urinary analysis of 16(5alpha)-androsten-3alpha-ol by gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry: implications in anti-doping analysis.

We present a method for the analysis of urinary 16(5alpha)-androsten-3alpha-ol together with 5beta-pregnane-3alpha,20alpha-diol and four testosterone metabolites: androsterone (Andro), etiocholanolone (Etio), 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol (5alphaA), 5beta-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol (5betaA) by means of gas chromatography/combustion/isotopic ratio mass spectrometry (GC/C/IRMS). The within-assay and between-assay precision S.D.s of the investigated steroids were lower than 0.3 and 0.6 per thousand, respectively. A comparative study on a population composed of 20 subjects has shown that the differences of the intra-individual delta(13)C-values for 16(5alpha)-androsten-3alpha-ol and 5beta-pregnane-3alpha,20alpha-diol are less than 0.9 per thousand. Thereafter, the method has been applied in the frame of an excretion study following oral ingestion of 50 mg DHEA initially and oral ingestion of 50mg pregnenolone 48 h later. Our findings show that administration of DHEA does not affect the isotopic ratio values of 16(5alpha)-androsten-3alpha-ol and 5beta-pregnane-3alpha,20alpha-diol, whereas the isotopic ratio values of 5beta-pregnane-3alpha,20alpha-diol vary by more 5 per thousand upon ingestion of pregnenolone. We have observed delta(13)C-value changes lower than 1 per thousand for 16(5alpha)-androsten-3alpha-ol, though pregnenolone is a precursor of the 16-ene steroids. In contrast to 5beta-pregnane-3alpha,20alpha-diol, the 16-ene steroid may be used as an endogenous reference compound when pregnenolone is administered.

The biochemistry of drug metabolism-an introduction: part 7. Intra-individual factors affecting drug metabolism.

This review on intra-individual factors affecting drug metabolism completes our series on the biochemistry of drug metabolism. The article presents the molecular mechanisms causing intra-individual differences in enzyme expression and activity. They include enzyme induction by transcriptional activation and enzyme inhibition on the protein level. The influencing factors are of physiological, pathological, or external origin. Tissue characteristics and developmental age strongly influence enzyme-expression patterns. Further influencing factors are pregnancy, disease, or biological rhythms. Xenobiotics, drugs, constituents of herbal remedies, food constituents, ethanol, and tobacco can all influence enzyme expression or activity and, hence, affect drug metabolism.

Combination of carbon isotope ratio with hydrogen isotope ratio determinations in sports drug testing.

Carbon isotope ratio (CIR) analysis has been routinely and successfully applied to doping control analysis for many years to uncover the misuse of endogenous steroids such as testosterone. Over the years, several challenges and limitations of this approach became apparent, e.g., the influence of inadequate chromatographic separation on CIR values or the emergence of steroid preparations comprising identical CIRs as endogenous steroids. While the latter has been addressed recently by the implementation of hydrogen isotope ratios (HIR), an improved sample preparation for CIR avoiding co-eluting compounds is presented herein together with newly established reference values of those endogenous steroids being relevant for doping controls. From the fraction of glucuronidated steroids 5β-pregnane-3α,20α-diol, 5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol, 3α-Hydroxy-5β-androstane-11,17-dione, 3α-hydroxy-5α-androstan-17-one (ANDRO), 3α-hydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one (ETIO), 3β-hydroxy-androst-5-en-17-one (DHEA), 5α- and 5β-androstane-3α,17β-diol (5aDIOL and 5bDIOL), 17β-hydroxy-androst-4-en-3-one and 17α-hydroxy-androst-4-en-3-one were included. In addition, sulfate conjugates of ANDRO, ETIO, DHEA, 3β-hydroxy-5α-androstan-17-one plus 17α- and androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol were considered and analyzed after acidic solvolysis. The results obtained for the reference population encompassing n = 67 males and females confirmed earlier findings regarding factors influencing endogenous CIR. Variations in sample preparation influenced CIR measurements especially for 5aDIOL and 5bDIOL, the most valuable steroidal analytes for the detection of testosterone misuse. Earlier investigations on the HIR of the same reference population enabled the evaluation of combined measurements of CIR and HIR and its usefulness regarding both steroid metabolism studies and doping control analysis. The combination of both stable isotopes would allow for lower reference limits providing the same statistical power and certainty to distinguish between the endo- or exogenous origin of a urinary steroid.

Pharmacogenetic Study on Antidementia Drugs

Differences in efficacy and safety of drugs among patients are a recognized problem in pharmacotherapy. The reasons are multifactorial and, therefore, the choice of a drug and its dosage for a particular patient based on different clinical and genetic factors is suggested to improve the clinical outcome. Four drugs are currently used for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease: three acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (donepezil, galantamine, rivastigmine) and the N-methyl-D-aspartate-antagonist memantine. For these drugs, a high interindividual variability in plasma levels was observed, which might influence the response to treatment. The main objective of this thesis was to provide a better understanding of clinical and genetic factors affecting the plasma levels of antidementia drugs. Furthermore, the relationship between plasma levels, genetic variations and side effects was assessed. For this purpose, a pharmacogenetic study was conducted including 300 patients from a naturalistic clinical setting. Analytical methods for the simultaneous measurement of antidementia drugs in plasma have been developed and validated using liquid chromatography methods coupled with mass spectrometry detection. Presently, these methods are used in the therapeutic drug monitoring service of our laboratory. The routine use of therapeutic drug monitoring for antidementia drugs cannot yet be recommended with the available data, but it may be beneficial for some patients in special clinical cases such as insufficient treatment response, side effects or drug interactions. Donepezil and galantamine are extensively metabolized by the liver enzymes cytochromes P450 (CYP) 2D6 and 3A and are substrates of the drug transporter P-glycoprotein. The relationship of variations in genes affecting the activity of these metabolic enzymes and drug transporter (CYP2D6, CYP3A, POR, NR1I2, ABCB1) with donepezil and galantamine plasma levels was investigated. The CYP2D6 genotype appeared to be the major genetic factor involved in the pharmacokinetics of these two drugs. Thus, CYP2D6 poor metabolizers demonstrated significantly higher drug plasma levels than extensive metabolizers. Additionally, in the donepezil study population, the frequency of side effects was significantly increased in poor metabolizers. Lower donepezil plasma levels were observed in ultra rapid metabolizers, which might expose those patients to the risk of non-response. Memantine is mainly eliminated unchanged by the kidney, with implication of tubular secretion by renal transporters. A population pharmacokinetic model was developed to quantify the effects of clinical factors and genetic variations in renal cation transporters (SLC22A1/2/5, SLC47A1, ABCB1), and nuclear receptors (NR1I2, NR1I3, PPARG) involved in transporter expression, on memantine plasma levels. In addition to the renal function and gender, a genetic variation in the nuclear receptor Pregnane-X-Receptor (NR1I2) significantly affected memantine elimination. These findings suggest that an individualized therapy approach for antidementia drugs, taking into account clinical characteristics and genetic background of a patient, might increase efficacy and safety of the treatment. - Les différences interindividuelles dans l'efficacité et la tolérance des médicaments sont un problème connu en pharmacothérapie. Les raisons sont multiples, et le choix du médicament et de la dose, basé sur des facteurs cliniques et génétiques spécifiques au patient, peut contribuer à améliorer la réponse clinique. Quatre médicaments sont couramment utilisés dans le traitement de la maladie d'Alzheimer : trois inhibiteurs de l'acétylcholinestérase (donépézil, galantamine, rivastigmine) et un antagoniste du récepteur N-méthyl-D-aspartate, la mémantine. Une forte variabilité interindividuelle dans les taux plasmatiques de ces quatre composés a été observée, ce qui pourrait influencer la réponse au traitement. L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est de mieux comprendre les facteurs cliniques et génétiques influençant les taux des médicaments pro-cognitifs. En outre, des associations entre les taux, la variabilité génétique et les effets secondaires ont été recherchées. Dans ce but, 300 patients sous traitement avec un médicament pro-cognitif ont été recrutés pour une étude pharmacogénétique. Des méthodes de dosage simultané de médicaments pro-cognitifs par chromatographie liquide couplée à la spectrométrie de masse ont été développées et validées. Ces méthodes sont actuellement utilisées dans le service de suivi thérapeutique de notre unité. Malgré le fait qu'un suivi des taux sanguins des pro-cognitifs ne puisse pas encore être recommandé en routine, un dosage peut être utile dans des cas cliniques spécifiques, comme une réponse insuffisante, une intolérance ou une interaction médicamenteuse. Le donépézil et la galantamine sont fortement métabolisés par les cytochromes P450 (CYP) 2D6 et 3A, et sont également substrats du transporteur P-glycoprotéine. Les associations entre les polymorphismes génétiques de ces enzymes, cofacteur, récepteur nucléaire et transporteur (CYP2D6, CYP3A, POR, NR1I2, ABCB1) et les taux de donépézil et de galantamine ont été étudiées. Le génotype du CYP2D6 a été montré comme le facteur génétique majeur impliqué dans la pharmacocinétique de ces deux médicaments. Ainsi, les métaboliseurs déficients du CYP2D6 ont démontré des taux plasmatiques significativement plus élevés comparé aux bons métaboliseurs. De plus, dans la population traitée avec le donépézil, la fréquence des effets secondaires était plus élevée chez les métaboliseurs déficients. Des taux plasmatiques bas ont été mesurés chez les métaboliseurs ultra-rapides traités avec le donépézil, ce qui pourrait être un facteur de risque à une non-réponse au traitement. La mémantine est principalement éliminée sous forme inchangée par les reins, et partiellement par sécrétion tubulaire grâce à des transporteurs rénaux. Un modèle de cinétique de population a été développé pour quantifier les effets des différents facteurs cliniques et de la variabilité génétique des transporteurs rénaux (SLC22A1/2/5, SLC47A1, ABCB1) et des récepteurs nucléaires (NR1I2, NR1I3, PPARG, impliqués dans l'expression des transporteurs) sur les taux plasmatiques de mémantine. En plus de la fonction rénale et du genre, une variation génétique dans le récepteur nucléaire Pregnane-X-Receptor (NR1I2) a montré une influence significative sur l'élimination de la mémantine. Ces résultats suggèrent qu'une approche thérapeutique individualisée, prenant en compte des facteurs cliniques et génétiques du patient, pourrait améliorer l'efficacité et la sécurité du traitement pro-cognitif.