Why Women Rarely Rise to the Top: A Social Identity Model of Leader Prototypes.

Purpose We propose a social identity model of leader prototypes to address why the maleness of leader prototypes is more pronounced among men than among women (e.g., Schein, 2001). Specifically, we argue that individuals project their ingroup prototype (e.g., a male prototype) onto a valued other category (e.g., leaders) (e.g., Wenzel, Mummendey, Weber, & Waldzus, 2003) in order to maintain a positive ingroup (e.g., gender) identity. We hypothesized that both women and men engage in ingroup projection of their gender prototype on their leader prototype, and we expected this effect to be stronger for men than women. We also investigated intelligence as a moderator of ingroup projection. Methodology Participants (276 students, University of Lausanne) assessed to what extent attributes on a list of gender traits were characteristic of a successful leader. We computed relative ingroup similarity scores (e.g., Waldzus & Mummendey, 2004) representing the difference between how characteristic ingroup traits are for a successful leader, and how characteristic outgroup traits are for a successful leader. Results Results showed that men engaged in ingroup projection while women engaged in outgroup projection, and that men engaged in ingroup projection to a greater extent. We also found a small, but positive effect of intelligence on ingroup projection among men. Limitations The use of a student sample might limit the external validity of our findings. Implications Our findings contribute to research on the under-representation of women in managerial roles, and introduce intelligence as a predictor of ingroup projection. Value Our study allows for a more fine-grained understanding of the cognitive representations of leaders of men and women.

Detached, distraught or discerning? Fathers of adolescents with chronic illness: a review of the literature.

Abstract Parenting a child with chronic disease provides a unique set of challenges for both mothers and fathers throughout all phases of the illness. However, fathers of these children are under-represented in existing research. This review focuses on the fathers of children with chronic disease included in 44 original articles. We address the challenges to the father's role as breadwinner, leader and strength-giver in the family. Three time-periods describe the obstacles fathers tackle when parenting children with chronic disease: a) diagnosis and short-term, characterized by distress, isolation and uncertainty; b) the mastery period, characterized by the struggle to establish routine and by support and spirituality; and c) the long-term, characterized by relationship and personality change, worries and bereavement. Overall, whilst current research has revealed some key themes pertaining to fathers of children with chronic disease, further studies are required to foster the development of support mechanisms for the specific needs of these fathers.

Leader corruption depends on power and testosterone

We used incentivized experimental games to manipulate leader power-the number of followers and the discretion leaders had to enforce their will. Leaders had complete autonomy in deciding payouts to themselves and their followers. Although leaders could make prosocial decisions to benefit the public good they could also abuse their power by invoking antisocial decisions, which reduced the total payouts to the group but increased leader's earnings. In Study 1 (N = 478), we found that both amount of followers and discretionary choices independently predicted leader corruption. In Study 2 (N = 240), we examined how power and individual differences (e.g., personality, hormones) affected leader corruption over time; power interacted with testosterone in predicting corruption, which was highest when leader power and baseline testosterone were both high. Honesty predicted initial level of leader antisocial decisions; however, honesty did not shield leaders from the corruptive effect of power.

How women and men project their gender prototypes on leader prototypes.

Both role incongruency theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002) and the lack of fit model by Heilman (1983) suggest that the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions can be explained by the male-typedness of leader prototypes. We examine how women and men project their gender prototypes onto leader prototypes. We found initially that men more so than women projected their gender prototypes on leader prototypes. For men there is more of an overlap between a prototypical men and a prototypical leader than there is an overlap between a prototypical woman and a prototypical leader. Women, however, do not engage in so called relative ingroup projection. In the current study, we further decompose this finding asking whether the gender difference in relative ingroup projection on leadership prototypes is driven by female prototypes, male prototypes, and/or leader prototypes. We further examine to what extent this gender difference is more manifested on positively valenced or negatively valenced attributes of prototypes. Our findings show that, while women and men have similar prototypes of leaders and men on both positively and negatively valenced attributes, men relative to women have less favorable prototypes of women but only on positively valenced attributes. An interesting implication is that efforts to address gender differences in the projection of gender prototypes onto leader prototypes should focus less on leader prototypes and more on the female prototypes. Theoretically, our findings allude to the importance of distinguishing between more subtle (evaluating the outgroup less positively on positive properties) and less subtle forms (evaluating the outgroup more negatively on negative properties) of outgroup derogation.

Gender ingroup projection and the evaluative connotation of leader prototypes

The underrepresentation of women in top corporate ranks is a topic of ongoing discussion. Manager prototypes are proposed to be more male-typed than female-typed because historically men more often than women have held leadership roles. Why then is the maleness of manager prototypes even more pronounced among men than among women? Given that most personnel decision makers in organizations are men this phenomenon is problematic for women's advancement to top management positions. We address this question by investigating peoples' use of ingroup projection and their endorsement of evaluative attributes in constructing gender and leader prototypes.

Skeletal muscle mitochondria in the elderly: effects of physical fitness and exercise training.

CONTEXT: Sarcopenia is thought to be associated with mitochondrial (Mito) loss. It is unclear whether the decrease in Mito content is consequent to aging per se or to decreased physical activity. OBJECTIVES: The objective of the study was to examine the influence of fitness on Mito content and function and to assess whether exercise could improve Mito function in older adults. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS: Three distinct studies were conducted: 1) a cross-sectional observation comparing Mito content and fitness in a large heterogeneous cohort of older adults; 2) a case-control study comparing chronically endurance-trained older adults and sedentary (S) subjects matched for age and gender; and 3) a 4-month exercise intervention in S. SETTING: The study was conducted at a university-based clinical research center. OUTCOMES: Mito volume density (MitoVd) was assessed by electron microscopy from vastus lateralis biopsies, electron transport chain proteins by Western blotting, mRNAs for transcription factors involved in M biogenesis by quantitative RT-PCR, and in vivo oxidative capacity (ATPmax) by (31)P-magnetice resonance spectroscopy. Peak oxygen uptake was measured by graded exercise test. RESULTS: Peak oxygen uptake was strongly correlated with MitoVd in 80 60- to 80-year-old adults. Comparison of chronically endurance-trained older adults vs S revealed differences in MitoVd, ATPmax, and some electron transport chain protein complexes. Finally, exercise intervention confirmed that S subjects are able to recover MitoVd, ATPmax, and specific transcription factors. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest the following: 1) aging per se is not the primary culprit leading to Mito dysfunction; 2) an aerobic exercise program, even at an older age, can ameliorate the loss in skeletal muscle Mito content and may prevent aging muscle comorbidities; and 3) the improvement of Mito function is all about content.

Instrumental leadership: Measurement and extension of transformational-transactional leadership theory.

Leaders must scan the internal and external environment, chart strategic and task objectives, and provide performance feedback. These instrumental leadership (IL) functions go beyond the motivational and quid-pro quo leader behaviors that comprise the full-range-transformational, transactional, and laissez faire-leadership model. In four studies we examined the construct validity of IL. We found evidence for a four-factor IL model that was highly prototypical of good leadership. IL predicted top-level leader emergence controlling for the full-range factors, initiating structure, and consideration. It also explained unique variance in outcomes beyond the full-range factors; the effects of transformational leadership were vastly overstated when IL was omitted from the model. We discuss the importance of a "fuller full-range" leadership theory for theory and practice. We also showcase our methodological contributions regarding corrections for common method variance (i.e., endogeneity) bias using two-stage least squares (2SLS) regression and Monte Carlo split-sample designs.

Recent Progress and Perspectives in Digital Holographic Microscopy

Digital Holographic Microscopy (DHM), is a new imaging technique allowing to provide quantitative phase images with a high accuracy and stability making possible to explore a large variety of relevant processes, occurring on the p.s to day time scale, in the fields including material research as well as cell biology. As a non invasive and real time imaging technique, DHM is particularly well suited for high throughput screening

Then and Now: Leadership

The purpose of the “Then and Now” program is to engage these people more actively in the annual meetings and provide a forum for them to engage with those who are following in their footsteps. This purpose allows the missions of the Community of Academy Senior Scholars (CASS) and the Management History (MH) Division to intersect. CASS has as one of its goals to keep these pioneers of management history engaged in their profession and their professional organization (AOM). MH has as one of its goals to accurately record the intellectual contributions of the pioneers of the management field.

Determination of Transmembrane Water Fluxes in Neurons Elicited by Glutamate Ionotropic Receptors and by the Cotransporters KCC2 and NKCC1: A Digital Holographic Microscopy Study.

Digital holographic microscopy (DHM) is a noninvasive optical imaging technique that provides quantitative phase images of living cells. In a recent study, we showed that the quantitative monitoring of the phase signal by DHM was a simple label-free method to study the effects of glutamate on neuronal optical responses (Pavillon et al., 2010). Here, we refine these observations and show that glutamate produces the following three distinct optical responses in mouse primary cortical neurons in culture, predominantly mediated by NMDA receptors: biphasic, reversible decrease (RD) and irreversible decrease (ID) responses. The shape and amplitude of the optical signal were not associated with a particular cellular phenotype but reflected the physiopathological status of neurons linked to the degree of NMDA activity. Thus, the biphasic, RD, and ID responses indicated, respectively, a low-level, a high-level, and an "excitotoxic" level of NMDA activation. Moreover, furosemide and bumetanide, two inhibitors of sodium-coupled and/or potassium-coupled chloride movement strongly modified the phase shift, suggesting an involvement of two neuronal cotransporters, NKCC1 (Na-K-Cl) and KCC2 (K-Cl) in the genesis of the optical signal. This observation is of particular interest since it shows that DHM is the first imaging technique able to monitor dynamically and in situ the activity of these cotransporters during physiological and/or pathological neuronal conditions.

Decision-Making in Social Enterprises: Exploring the Link between Employee Participation and Organizational Commitment

This article studies the influence of the procedural justice resulting from participation in decision-making on employees' affective commitment in social enterprises. It also examines whether any potential link between participation and commitment is due to social exchange, as is the case with for-profit companies. The study is based on data from employees of French work integration social enterprises. The results confirm the positive relationship between procedural justice and affective commitment and the mediating role of perceived organizational support and leader-member exchanges. Managerial recommendations are then given to best maintain or increase employees' involvement in the decision-making processes of social enterprises.

Leadership and individual differences: at the cusp of a renaissance

In this introductory editorial, we provide a brief overview of the history of individual difference research in leadership. We explain the major challenges that trait research faced, and why it was revived primarily because of methodological advancements. Next, we argue that leadership individual difference research is at a cusp of a renaissance. We explain why we are at this cusp and what researchers should do reify the renaissance in terms of theoretical extensions of trait models, the application of robust methodological advancements, and the development of process models linking distal (i.e., traits) predictors to proximal predictors (e.g., behaviors, skills, attitudes), and the latter to leader outcomes. We then summarize the papers we accepted for the special issue, and conclude with an optimistic note for leadership individual difference research.