« Représentations de la maltraitance infantile d'un groupe d'enseignantes d'une école primaire du canton de Vaud, leur rôle dans ce domaine et leurs connaissances sur les procédures de signalement. »

Le rapport international le plus récent concernant la maltraitance infantile date de 2006 : il s'agit du Rapport mondial sur la violence contre les enfants, du Secrétaire général des Nations Unies (1). La définition retenue pour la maltraitance infantile s'inspire de celle du Rapport mondial sur la violence et la santé, de l'OMS en 2002 (2) : «La menace ou l'utilisation intentionnelle de la force physique ou du pouvoir contre un enfant par un individu ou un groupe qui entraîne ou risque fortement de causer un préjudice à la santé, à la survie, au développement ou à la dignité de l'enfant.». Il existe différentes formes de maltraitance : - la maltraitance physique (brutalités, coups, blessures, brûlures, etc.)  la maltraitance psychologique (insultes, humiliation, isolement, terroriser l'enfant, etc.) - la maltraitance sexuelle (exhibitionnisme, attouchements, relations sexuelles, etc.) - les négligences (manque d'attention et de soins) Dans la majorité des cas, plusieurs formes de maltraitances sont présentes chez un enfant victime de mauvais traitements ; elles se chevauchent (3). L'Observatoire national de l'Action Sociale Décentralisée (ODAS) a réalisé une classification des enfants à protéger, les définitions sont les suivantes (4): L'enfant maltraité est « celui qui est victime de violences physiques, d'abus sexuels, de cruauté mentale, de négligences lourdes ayant des conséquences sur son développement physique et psychologique. » L'enfant en risque est « celui qui connaît des conditions d'existence qui risquent de mettre en danger sa santé, sa sécurité, sa moralité, son éducation ou son entretien, mais qui n'est pas pour autant maltraité. » L'enfant en souffrance est « un enfant aimé et soigné mais qui souffre des conditions d'existences qui fragilisent ou menacent son développement et son épanouissement personnel. » En Suisse, peu de données sont disponibles concernant la prévalence de la maltraitance étant donné la difficulté à récolter des données. Selon l'Office Fédéral de la Statistique suisse, les résultats d'une étude de 2004 montre une diminution des châtiments corporels par rapport à une étude semblable réalisée 12 ans auparavant (5). Cependant, la maltraitance infantile est un problème de santé publique du fait de la gravité de ses conséquences sur la santé physique, mentale et sociale de l'individu et de son retentissement sur la communauté ainsi que de sa fréquence estimée dans la population suisse. Elle a des effets néfastes sur la santé de l'enfant par mortalité directe ou morbidité directe ou indirecte et représente également un facteur de risque pour la santé physique et mentale, le développement et les perspectives de réalisation personnelle du jeune adulte et de l'adulte (6). On sait aujourd'hui que le nombre de cas de maltraitance signalés en Suisse est en augmentation. Ceci démontre que la maltraitance est un phénomène courant. Cependant, les professionnels ne pensent pas MF / Travail de master en médecine / 2011-2012 3 que le phénomène de la maltraitance infantile soit en augmentation, mais que les cas de maltraitance sont mieux repérés, que les professionnels s'occupant d'enfants sont plus sensibles à cette problématique et qu'il y a donc davantage de signalements (7). La prévention de la maltraitance est nécessaire et possible. Des interventions ont établi leur efficacité et il a été démontré que plus l'intervention est précoce, plus elle a de chances de réussite (2). C'est la raison pour laquelle il est important de repérer les cas de maltraitance précocement afin de pouvoir intervenir, aider les familles et garantir la protection de l'enfant. Des mesures de prévention ont été mises en place au niveau international, comme au niveau fédéral, pour assurer la reconnaissance et la prise en charge de l'enfant victime de maltraitance. Au niveau international, la Convention internationale des droits de l'enfant a été adoptée par l'Assemblée Générale en 1989 (8). Elle reconnaît l'enfant comme personne indépendante ayant des droits propres. Cette convention est divisée en quatre parties comportant : les principes directeurs (la non-discrimination, viser les meilleurs intérêts pour l'enfant, le droit de vivre, de survivre et de se développer, le droit de participation), les droits de survie et de développement (le droit à avoir les ressources, les compétences et les contributions nécessaires pour pouvoir survivre et pouvoir profiter d'un développement complet), les droits de protection (de toutes les formes de maltraitance envers les enfants, négligences, exploitation et cruauté), les droits de participation (la liberté d'expression de leurs opinions, de parler de sujets qui concernent leur vie sociale, économique, religieuse, culturelle ou politique et d'être écouté, la liberté d'information et la liberté d'association). Les stratégies de prévention de la maltraitance infantile visent à réduire les causes sous- jacentes et les facteurs de risque, tout en renforçant les facteurs de protection, de façon à prévenir de nouveaux cas (9). Elles comprennent : les stratégies sociétales et communautaires (mise en place de réformes juridiques et des droits de la personne humaine, instauration des politiques sociales et économiques favorables, correction des normes sociales et culturelles, réduction des inégalités économiques, réduction du facteur de risque environnemental, formation des professionnels), les stratégies relationnelles (formation parentale et des adultes s'occupant d'enfants), les stratégies individuelles (apprendre aux enfants à reconnaître et à éviter les situations de violence potentielle). En plus des mesures structurelles mises en place par les états (scolarisation obligatoire, dispositif légal, service de protection des enfants et des jeunes, services de santé spécialisés, etc.), des associations de lutte contre la maltraitance infantile existent et jouent également un rôle important dans la prévention. Par exemple, la Fondation Suisse pour la Protection de l'Enfant s'emploie à analyser les causes de la violence envers les MF / Travail de master en médecine / 2011-2012 4 enfants et à les combattre, à protéger les enfants contre la violence physique, psychologique, sexuelle et structurelle ainsi que contre la négligence par le biais d'un travail de prévention ciblé à l'échelle nationale. Elle vise également à apprendre aux enfants comment se protéger eux-mêmes et demander de l'aide, à sensibiliser les adultes qui les entourent au fait que les enfants ont une personnalité propre et qu'ils ont le droit d'être protégés et encouragés et à demander au niveau politique que l'on mette en place des structures adaptées aux enfants (10).

Application extraterritoriale du droit international des droits de l'homme

Les obligations de l'Etat en matière de droits de l'homme s'étendent-elles au-delà de ses frontières? Le sujet prend une importance considérable actuellement: interventions militaires à l'étranger, opérations de paix, occupation militaire, centres de détention à l'étranger, mouvements séparatistes soutenus par un Etat étranger, éloignement des étrangers, entraide judiciaire et administrative internationale, exequatur de décisions étrangères violant les droits de l'homme... Ces thèmes, et d'autres, sont abordés dans l'ouvrage sous l'angle du Pacte ONU II, de la CEDH, et de la Convention et la Déclaration américaines dans une approche comparative et systématique. L'ouvrage analyse en détail la jurisprudence et la pratique internationales relatives à ces instruments. L'auteur est avocat au Barreau du Canton de Vaud (Lausanne) et titulaire d'un LL.M. de l'Université de Cambridge.

Clarification of the Meaning of "Beneficial Owner" in the OECD Model Tax Convention: Comment on the April 2011 Discussion Draft

In April 2011, the OECD released an important discussion draft that is intended to clarify the meaning of the term "beneficial ownership" under articles 10, 11 and 12 of the OECD Model (2010). This article discusses these proposals and demonstrates that some refinement is necessary.

Convention-cadre pour la lutte antitabac: un instrument puissant de santé publique. [The Framework Convention for Tobacco Control (FCTC): a powerful public health instrument].

The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) isa global and comprehensive legal framework for reducing demand for tobacco (e.g. price measures; ban on smoking in enclosed places; contents of tobacco products; packaging and labeling; advertising, promotion and sponsorship; liability, tobacco cessation, etc.) and supply (e.g. illicit trade; sales to/by minors, etc.). Adopted in 2003, the FCTC has been ratified by 174 countries so far. Switzerland has signed the treaty in 2004 but ratification will necessitate the implementation of stronger tobacco control measures at the national level. The FCTC is a priority of any strategy to reduce noncommunicable diseases in populations. Broad implementation of the FCTC has the potential to prevent a substantial proportion of the billion of tobacco-related deaths expected in the 21st

The rise and fall of icons of 'stolen childhood' since the adoption of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child

In the past two decades, the iconography of victimhood mobilized by child rights advocates has changed significantly. In particular, the child victim of violence has replaced the street child as the dominant icon on the international agenda. Based on data from more than 300 documents produced between 1989 and 2009 and interviews with leading advocates, this article explores the diverging trajectories of iconic child victims. It follows the traces of the successive translations of the idea of âeuro~stolen childhoodâeuro? and locates them against the backdrop of evolutions in the childrenâeuro?s rights field.

Results of An International Study of Quantitative BCR/ABL Assays Using Defined RNA Samples

Molecular monitoring of BCR/ABL transcripts by real time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) is an essential technique for clinical management of patients with BCR/ABL-positive CML and ALL. Though quantitative BCR/ABL assays are performed in hundreds of laboratories worldwide, results among these laboratories cannot be reliably compared due to heterogeneity in test methods, data analysis, reporting, and lack of quantitative standards. Recent efforts towards standardization have been limited in scope. Aliquots of RNA were sent to clinical test centers worldwide in order to evaluate methods and reporting for e1a2, b2a2, and b3a2 transcript levels using their own qRT-PCR assays. Total RNA was isolated from tissue culture cells that expressed each of the different BCR/ABL transcripts. Serial log dilutions were prepared, ranging from 100 to 10-5, in RNA isolated from HL60 cells. Laboratories performed 5 independent qRT-PCR reactions for each sample type at each dilution. In addition, 15 qRT-PCR reactions of the 10-3 b3a2 RNA dilution were run to assess reproducibility within and between laboratories. Participants were asked to run the samples following their standard protocols and to report cycle threshold (Ct), quantitative values for BCR/ABL and housekeeping genes, and ratios of BCR/ABL to housekeeping genes for each sample RNA. Thirty-seven (n=37) participants have submitted qRT-PCR results for analysis (36, 37, and 34 labs generated data for b2a2, b3a2, and e1a2, respectively). The limit of detection for this study was defined as the lowest dilution that a Ct value could be detected for all 5 replicates. For b2a2, 15, 16, 4, and 1 lab(s) showed a limit of detection at the 10-5, 10-4, 10-3, and 10-2 dilutions, respectively. For b3a2, 20, 13, and 4 labs showed a limit of detection at the 10-5, 10-4, and 10-3 dilutions, respectively. For e1a2, 10, 21, 2, and 1 lab(s) showed a limit of detection at the 10-5, 10-4, 10-3, and 10-2 dilutions, respectively. Log %BCR/ABL ratio values provided a method for comparing results between the different laboratories for each BCR/ABL dilution series. Linear regression analysis revealed concordance among the majority of participant data over the 10-1 to 10-4 dilutions. The overall slope values showed comparable results among the majority of b2a2 (mean=0.939; median=0.9627; range (0.399 - 1.1872)), b3a2 (mean=0.925; median=0.922; range (0.625 - 1.140)), and e1a2 (mean=0.897; median=0.909; range (0.5174 - 1.138)) laboratory results (Fig. 1-3)). Thirty-four (n=34) out of the 37 laboratories reported Ct values for all 15 replicates and only those with a complete data set were included in the inter-lab calculations. Eleven laboratories either did not report their copy number data or used other reporting units such as nanograms or cell numbers; therefore, only 26 laboratories were included in the overall analysis of copy numbers. The median copy number was 348.4, with a range from 15.6 to 547,000 copies (approximately a 4.5 log difference); the median intra-lab %CV was 19.2% with a range from 4.2% to 82.6%. While our international performance evaluation using serially diluted RNA samples has reinforced the fact that heterogeneity exists among clinical laboratories, it has also demonstrated that performance within a laboratory is overall very consistent. Accordingly, the availability of defined BCR/ABL RNAs may facilitate the validation of all phases of quantitative BCR/ABL analysis and may be extremely useful as a tool for monitoring assay performance. Ongoing analyses of these materials, along with the development of additional control materials, may solidify consensus around their application in routine laboratory testing and possible integration in worldwide efforts to standardize quantitative BCR/ABL testing.

International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) Consensus Conference on Handling and Staging of Radical Prostatectomy Specimens. Working group 2: T2 substaging and prostate cancer volume.

The 2009 International Society of Urological Pathology consensus conference in Boston made recommendations regarding the standardization of pathology reporting of radical prostatectomy specimens. Issues relating to the substaging of pT2 prostate cancers according to the TNM 2002/2010 system, reporting of tumor size/volume and zonal location of prostate cancers were coordinated by working group 2. A survey circulated before the consensus conference demonstrated that 74% of the 157 participants considered pT2 substaging of prostate cancer to be of clinical and/or academic relevance. The survey also revealed a considerable variation in the frequency of reporting of pT2b substage prostate cancer, which was likely a consequence of the variable methodologies used to distinguish pT2a from pT2b tumors. Overview of the literature indicates that current pT2 substaging criteria lack clinical relevance and the majority (65.5%) of conference attendees wished to discontinue pT2 substaging. Therefore, the consensus was that reporting of pT2 substages should, at present, be optional. Several studies have shown that prostate cancer volume is significantly correlated with other clinicopathological features, including Gleason score and extraprostatic extension of tumor; however, most studies fail to demonstrate this to have prognostic significance on multivariate analysis. Consensus was reached with regard to the reporting of some quantitative measure of the volume of tumor in a prostatectomy specimen, without prescribing a specific methodology. Incorporation of the zonal and/or anterior location of the dominant/index tumor in the pathology report was accepted by most participants, but a formal definition of the identifying features of the dominant/index tumor remained undecided.

Coffee and tea intake and risk of head and neck cancer: pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium.

BACKGROUND: Only a few studies have explored the relation between coffee and tea intake and head and neck cancers, with inconsistent results. METHODS: We pooled individual-level data from nine case-control studies of head and neck cancers, including 5,139 cases and 9,028 controls. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: Caffeinated coffee intake was inversely related with the risk of cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx: the ORs were 0.96 (95% CI, 0.94-0.98) for an increment of 1 cup per day and 0.61 (95% CI, 0.47-0.80) in drinkers of >4 cups per day versus nondrinkers. This latter estimate was consistent for different anatomic sites (OR, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.30-0.71 for oral cavity; OR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.41-0.82 for oropharynx/hypopharynx; and OR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.37-1.01 for oral cavity/pharynx not otherwise specified) and across strata of selected covariates. No association of caffeinated coffee drinking was found with laryngeal cancer (OR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.64-1.45 in drinkers of >4 cups per day versus nondrinkers). Data on decaffeinated coffee were too sparse for detailed analysis, but indicated no increased risk. Tea intake was not associated with head and neck cancer risk (OR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.89-1.11 for drinkers versus nondrinkers). CONCLUSIONS: This pooled analysis of case-control studies supports the hypothesis of an inverse association between caffeinated coffee drinking and risk of cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx. IMPACT: Given widespread use of coffee and the relatively high incidence and low survival of head and neck cancers, the observed inverse association may have appreciable public health relevance.

Harmonization guidelines for HLA-peptide multimer assays derived from results of a large scale international proficiency panel of the Cancer Vaccine Consortium.

PURPOSE: The Cancer Vaccine Consortium of the Cancer Research Institute (CVC-CRI) conducted a multicenter HLA-peptide multimer proficiency panel (MPP) with a group of 27 laboratories to assess the performance of the assay. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Participants used commercially available HLA-peptide multimers and a well characterized common source of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The frequency of CD8+ T cells specific for two HLA-A2-restricted model antigens was measured by flow cytometry. The panel design allowed for participants to use their preferred staining reagents and locally established protocols for both cell labeling, data acquisition and analysis. RESULTS: We observed significant differences in both the performance characteristics of the assay and the reported frequencies of specific T cells across laboratories. These results emphasize the need to identify the critical variables important for the observed variability to allow for harmonization of the technique across institutions. CONCLUSIONS: Three key recommendations emerged that would likely reduce assay variability and thus move toward harmonizing of this assay. (1) Use of more than two colors for the staining (2) collect at least 100,000 CD8 T cells, and (3) use of a background control sample to appropriately set the analytical gates. We also provide more insight into the limitations of the assay and identified additional protocol steps that potentially impact the quality of data generated and therefore should serve as primary targets for systematic analysis in future panels. Finally, we propose initial guidelines for harmonizing assay performance which include the introduction of standard operating protocols to allow for adequate training of technical staff and auditing of test analysis procedures.

Linking Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) data to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC): the case for the Seychelles

Tobacco control has been recognized as a main public health concern in Seychelles for the past two decades. Tobacco advertising, sponsoring and promotion has been banned for years, tobacco products are submitted to high taxes, high-profile awareness programs are organized regularly, and several other control measures have been implemented. The Republic of Seychelles was the first country to ratify the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) in the African region. Three population-based surveys have been conducted in adults in Seychelles and results showed a substantial decrease in the prevalence of smoking among adults between 1989 and 2004. A first survey in adolescents was conducted in Seychelles in 2002 (the Global Youth Tobacco Survey, GYTS) in a representative sample of 1321 girls and boys aged 13-15 years. The results show that approximately half of students had tried smoking and a quarter of both boys and girls had smoked at least one cigarette during the past 30 days. Although "current smoking" is defined differently in adolescents (>or=1 cigarette during the past 30 days) and in adults (>or=1 cigarette per day), which precludes direct comparison, the high smoking prevalence in youth in Seychelles likely predicts an increasing prevalence of tobacco use in the next adult generation, particularly in women. GYTS 2002 also provides important data on a wide range of specific individual and societal factors influencing tobacco use. Hence, GYTS can be a powerful tool for monitoring the situation of tobacco use in adolescents, for highlighting the need for new policy and programs, and for evaluating the impact of current and future programs.