Développement de l'irrigation et évolution des régimes fonciers dans la région de Gaya (Niger)

Since the mid 90's, international actors as well as governmental actors have raised their interest into the development of irrigation's potential that is still largely unexploited in Niger. It seems all the more interesting as it could answer the needs of a fast growing population (3.3% per year). However, if everyone agrees on the need to development this system, the current implementation triggers questions on the process itself and its side effects. National and international policies on this matter were build upon an historical process through colonial, post-colonial and then the late 1980's neoliberal structures, leading to a business model that reveals a discrepancy between the state logic and the farming one. This business model asks for a high capacity of mobilization of resources unachievable for many, especially when they want to address small-scale irrigation (area internationales, reposent sur un modèle entrepreneurial qui parachève une longue trajectoire historique. Initiée par l'Etat colonial, poursuivie par l'Etat post-colonial et transformé par les politiques néolibérales des années 1980, elle se caractérise par un hiatus constant entre logiques étatiques et logiques paysannes. En matière de petite irrigation privée (surfaces < 1-2 ha, technologies à faible coût), ce modèle présuppose une mobilisation de ressources (économiques, sociales, éducationnelles et foncières) inégalement réparties au sein de la population rurale. Cette recherche s'est intéressée à expliciter les liens qui existent entre le développement de la petite irrigation privée et l'évolution des régimes fonciers. Les trois questionnements qui ont guidé l'analyse empirique portent sur la sécurisation foncière, les dynamiques de marchandisation de la terre et l'accès à la terre pour tous les producteurs. Le Département de Gaya dispose d'un potentiel très important en ressources hydriques, facilement mobilisables. Les productions maraîchères et fruitières ont connu un essor très important à partir des années 1980. Initialement pratiquées par les cultivateurs, elles ont progressivement attiré l'attention d'acteurs externes au monde rural (fonctionnaires, commerçants), du fait de leur haute valeur ajoutée. La Banque mondiale a fortement soutenu cette dynamique à travers un projet à vocation entrepreneuriale, qui s'est pourtant révélé hors de portée de la majorité des petits paysans et a principalement bénéficié à ces acteurs extra-ruraux ainsi qu'à certaines élites locales. Au plan foncier, il a en particulier exclu tous les emprunteurs des terres, qui ne sont pas à même de produire des documents écrits confirmant leurs droits sur la terre. Ce projet, et plus largement l'intérêt que les acteurs extra-ruraux portent à la petite irrigation, ont contribué à alimenter la marchandisation de la terre. Sans ancrage familial dans les terroirs villageois, ces acteurs sont obligés d'acheter la terre pour faire de l'irrigation. Leur demande vient s'inscrire dans un contexte général où la pression démographique et le morcellement successif des capitaux fonciers familiaux ont progressivement individualisé la relation entre les producteurs et la terre, au point d'affaiblir ou de faire tomber les interdits coutumiers en matière de vente. Dans les espaces disposant de faibles réserves foncières, les ventes se font principalement au détriment des acteurs qui, comme les emprunteurs, disposent de droits fonciers peu stables et sécurisés. Si le retrait de la terre est socialement encadré (terre en remplacement, possibilité d'acheter la terre qui va être vendue), il pose également des contraintes agronomiques (sols de moindre qualité) et économiques (nécessité de disposer des liquidités pour racheter la terre) qui peuvent, en dernier ratio, obligent les acteurs concernés à quitter les terroirs. Les instances du Code rural, qui ont su apporter des réponses satisfaisantes à la demande de sécurisation foncière par l'établissement de documents écrits, rencontrent aujourd'hui de grandes difficultés à en faire de même pour les droits de prêt. Dans ce contexte, l'irrigation peut apporter les sommes nécessaires à l'achat des terres. Encore faut-il que ces emprunteurs disposent des ressources financières propres pour la développer ou qu'ils puissent y avoir accès grâce à l'appui d'un projet. Si l'intérêt économique de la petite irrigation privée est indiscutable, les risques de marginalisation d'une partie de producteurs ruraux qu'elle peut produire sont bien réels. Pour en faire une activité accessible au plus grand nombre, il faut revoir les mécanismes de régulation foncière, ainsi que les montages techniques et financiers qui supportent le développement de ce secteur d'activité très prometteur.

What Kind of Justice Today ? Expectations Of 'Good Justice', Convergences And Divergences Between Managerial And Judicial Actors And How They Fit Within Management-Oriented Values

This research aims toward a better understanding of the organizational culture(s) of the judiciary in Switzerland by analysing what 'good justice' means nowadays in this country. It seeks to clarify whether, and to what extent, expectations of 'good justice' of judicial actors (judges without managerial experience) and of managerial actors (court managers) are similar and to describe possible managerial implications that may result from this. As judges are at the heart of the judicial organization and exert a strong influence on other groups of actors (Sullivan, Warren et al. 1994), the congruence of their expectations with those of court managers will be at the centre of the analysis. Additionally, referring to the conceptual worlds of Boltanski and Thévenaut (1991), we analyze how closely these expectations are to management-oriented values. We found that almost half of expectations are common to the two groups examined and the main quoted ones are compatible to new public management (NPM) concepts. On the other hand, those expectations shared exclusively by judges relate to the human side of justice, whereas those specific to court managers focus on the way justice functions.

Toward a Statistically Robust Assessment of Social and Solidarity Economy Actors. Conceptual Development and Empirical Validation

Many definitions and debates exist about the core characteristics of social and solidarity economy (SSE) and its actors. Among others, legal forms, profit, geographical scope, and size as criteria for identifying SSE actors often reveal dissents among SSE scholars. Instead of using a dichotomous, either-in-or-out definition of SSE actors, this paper presents an assessment tool that takes into account multiple dimensions to offer a more comprehensive and nuanced view of the field. We first define the core dimensions of the assessment tool by synthesizing the multiple indicators found in the literature. We then empirically test these dimensions and their interrelatedness and seek to identify potential clusters of actors. Finally we discuss the practical implications of our model.

International Standardisation and Local Participatory Dynamics : The INTERNORM Project

This paper presents a pilot project (INTERNORM) funded by the University of Lausanne (2010 - 2013) to support the involvement of civil society organisations (CSO) in international standard setting bodies such as the ISO. It analyses how a distinct participatory mechanism can influence the institutional environment of technical diplomacy in which standards are shaped. The project is an attempt to respond to the democratic deficit attested in the field of international standardisation, formally open to civil society participation, but still largely dominated by expert knowledge and market players. Many international standards have direct implications on society as a whole, but CSOs (consumers and environmental associations, trade unions) are largely under-represented in negotiation arenas. The paper draws upon international relations literature on new institutional forms in global governance and studies of participation in science and technology. It argues that there are significant limitations to the rise of civil society participation in such global governance mechanisms. The INTERNORM project has been designed as a platform of knowledge exchange between CSO and academic experts, with earmarked funding and official membership to a national standardisation body. But INTERNORM cannot substitute for a long- established lack of resources in time, money and expertise of CSOs. Despite high entry costs into technical diplomacy, participation thus appears as less a matter of upstream engagement, or of procedure only, than of dedicated means to shift the geometry of actors and the framing of socio-technical change.

Online teaching of inflammatory skin pathology by a French-speaking international university network

Introduction: Developments in technology, webbased teaching and whole slide imaging have broadened the teaching horizon in anatomic pathology. Creating online learning material including many types of media like radiologic images, videos, clinical and macroscopic photographs and whole slides imaging is now accessible to almost every university. Unfortunately, a major limiting factor to maintain and update the learning material is the amount of work, time and resources needed. In this perspective, a French national university network was initiated in 2011 to build mutualised online teaching pathology modules with clinical cases and tests. This network has been extended to an international level in 2012-2014 (Quebec, Switzerland and Ivory Coast). Method: One of the first steps of the international project was to build a learning module on inflammatory skin pathology intended for interns and residents of pathology and dermatology. A pathology resident from Quebec spent 6 weeks in France and Switzerland to develop the contents and build the module on an e-learning Moodle platform (http: //moodle.sorbonne-paris-cite.fr) under the supervision of two dermatopathologists (BV, MB). The learning module contains text, interactive clinical cases, tests with feedback, whole slides images (WSI), images and clinical photographs. For that module, the virtual slides are decentralized in 2 universities (Bordeaux and Paris 7). Each university is responsible of its own slide scanning, image storage and online display with virtual slide viewers. Results: The module on inflammatory skin pathology includes more than 50 web pages with French original content, tests and clinical cases, links to over 45 WSI and more than 50 micro and clinical photographs. The whole learning module is currently being revised by four dermatopathologists and two senior pathologists. It will be accessible to interns and residents in spring 2014. The experience and knowledge gained from that work will be transferred to the next international fellowship intern whose work will be aimed at creating lung and breast pathology learning modules. Conclusion: The challenges of sustaining a project of this scope are numerous. The technical aspect of whole-slide imaging and storage needs to be developed by each university or group. The content needs to be regularly updated, completed and its use and existence needs to be promoted by the different actors in pathology. Of the great benefits of that kind of project are the international partnerships and connections that have been established between numerous Frenchspeaking universities and pathologists with the common goals of promoting education in pathology and the use of technology including whole slide imaging. * The Moodle website is hosted by PRES Sorbonne Paris Cité, and financial supports for hardware have been obtained from UNF3S (http://www.unf3s.org/) and PRES Sorbonne Paris Cité. Financial support for international fellowships has been obtained from CFQCU (http://www.cfqcu.org/).

Innovative implementation by non-state actors in environment-related areas : towards a positive implementation gap ?

This contribution (presented in the first International Conference on Public Policy (ICPP) in Grenoble in June 2013) explores the phenomena of innovation in action ("innovative implementation"). To do so, we operationalize "innovative implementation" as a strategy by which (coalitions of) non-state actors seek to develop ad hoc solutions to address a given environmental issue, going beyond what is provided for in formal policy designs. Following an inductive research strategy, we elaborate a conceptual framework whose main advantage is to bring the actors and their coalition (in all their diversity) back in the analysis. More concretely, we state that perceiving implementation as broader 'social interaction processes' (De Boer & Bressers 2011) within which actors play strategic 'games' (Bardach 1977, Scharpf 1997) opens interesting lines of research to better account for their innovative and strategic behaviours. In a second step, we apply this framework to three strategies of innovative implementation in different contexts, and identify on this basis empirical regularities in the individual pathways related to the emergence and success (or failure) of these strategies.

The international standardisation arena and the civil society participation stakes : results of the INTERTERM project

International standards are playing an increasingly important role in market governance while frequently exerting direct effects on health, safety and the environment. Yet civil society, more often than not, is absent from the standardisation procedures. The recommendation made here is to foster the participation of civil society actors in standardisation by framing standardisation topics in a way that will encourage the mobilisation of these actors in accordance with their repertoire of actions and interests and by organising the plural expertise required for the effective participation that is necessary if they are to exert an influence.

Results of An International Study of Quantitative BCR/ABL Assays Using Defined RNA Samples

Molecular monitoring of BCR/ABL transcripts by real time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) is an essential technique for clinical management of patients with BCR/ABL-positive CML and ALL. Though quantitative BCR/ABL assays are performed in hundreds of laboratories worldwide, results among these laboratories cannot be reliably compared due to heterogeneity in test methods, data analysis, reporting, and lack of quantitative standards. Recent efforts towards standardization have been limited in scope. Aliquots of RNA were sent to clinical test centers worldwide in order to evaluate methods and reporting for e1a2, b2a2, and b3a2 transcript levels using their own qRT-PCR assays. Total RNA was isolated from tissue culture cells that expressed each of the different BCR/ABL transcripts. Serial log dilutions were prepared, ranging from 100 to 10-5, in RNA isolated from HL60 cells. Laboratories performed 5 independent qRT-PCR reactions for each sample type at each dilution. In addition, 15 qRT-PCR reactions of the 10-3 b3a2 RNA dilution were run to assess reproducibility within and between laboratories. Participants were asked to run the samples following their standard protocols and to report cycle threshold (Ct), quantitative values for BCR/ABL and housekeeping genes, and ratios of BCR/ABL to housekeeping genes for each sample RNA. Thirty-seven (n=37) participants have submitted qRT-PCR results for analysis (36, 37, and 34 labs generated data for b2a2, b3a2, and e1a2, respectively). The limit of detection for this study was defined as the lowest dilution that a Ct value could be detected for all 5 replicates. For b2a2, 15, 16, 4, and 1 lab(s) showed a limit of detection at the 10-5, 10-4, 10-3, and 10-2 dilutions, respectively. For b3a2, 20, 13, and 4 labs showed a limit of detection at the 10-5, 10-4, and 10-3 dilutions, respectively. For e1a2, 10, 21, 2, and 1 lab(s) showed a limit of detection at the 10-5, 10-4, 10-3, and 10-2 dilutions, respectively. Log %BCR/ABL ratio values provided a method for comparing results between the different laboratories for each BCR/ABL dilution series. Linear regression analysis revealed concordance among the majority of participant data over the 10-1 to 10-4 dilutions. The overall slope values showed comparable results among the majority of b2a2 (mean=0.939; median=0.9627; range (0.399 - 1.1872)), b3a2 (mean=0.925; median=0.922; range (0.625 - 1.140)), and e1a2 (mean=0.897; median=0.909; range (0.5174 - 1.138)) laboratory results (Fig. 1-3)). Thirty-four (n=34) out of the 37 laboratories reported Ct values for all 15 replicates and only those with a complete data set were included in the inter-lab calculations. Eleven laboratories either did not report their copy number data or used other reporting units such as nanograms or cell numbers; therefore, only 26 laboratories were included in the overall analysis of copy numbers. The median copy number was 348.4, with a range from 15.6 to 547,000 copies (approximately a 4.5 log difference); the median intra-lab %CV was 19.2% with a range from 4.2% to 82.6%. While our international performance evaluation using serially diluted RNA samples has reinforced the fact that heterogeneity exists among clinical laboratories, it has also demonstrated that performance within a laboratory is overall very consistent. Accordingly, the availability of defined BCR/ABL RNAs may facilitate the validation of all phases of quantitative BCR/ABL analysis and may be extremely useful as a tool for monitoring assay performance. Ongoing analyses of these materials, along with the development of additional control materials, may solidify consensus around their application in routine laboratory testing and possible integration in worldwide efforts to standardize quantitative BCR/ABL testing.

International Society of Urological Pathology (ISUP) Consensus Conference on Handling and Staging of Radical Prostatectomy Specimens. Working group 2: T2 substaging and prostate cancer volume.

The 2009 International Society of Urological Pathology consensus conference in Boston made recommendations regarding the standardization of pathology reporting of radical prostatectomy specimens. Issues relating to the substaging of pT2 prostate cancers according to the TNM 2002/2010 system, reporting of tumor size/volume and zonal location of prostate cancers were coordinated by working group 2. A survey circulated before the consensus conference demonstrated that 74% of the 157 participants considered pT2 substaging of prostate cancer to be of clinical and/or academic relevance. The survey also revealed a considerable variation in the frequency of reporting of pT2b substage prostate cancer, which was likely a consequence of the variable methodologies used to distinguish pT2a from pT2b tumors. Overview of the literature indicates that current pT2 substaging criteria lack clinical relevance and the majority (65.5%) of conference attendees wished to discontinue pT2 substaging. Therefore, the consensus was that reporting of pT2 substages should, at present, be optional. Several studies have shown that prostate cancer volume is significantly correlated with other clinicopathological features, including Gleason score and extraprostatic extension of tumor; however, most studies fail to demonstrate this to have prognostic significance on multivariate analysis. Consensus was reached with regard to the reporting of some quantitative measure of the volume of tumor in a prostatectomy specimen, without prescribing a specific methodology. Incorporation of the zonal and/or anterior location of the dominant/index tumor in the pathology report was accepted by most participants, but a formal definition of the identifying features of the dominant/index tumor remained undecided.

Application extraterritoriale du droit international des droits de l'homme

Les obligations de l'Etat en matière de droits de l'homme s'étendent-elles au-delà de ses frontières? Le sujet prend une importance considérable actuellement: interventions militaires à l'étranger, opérations de paix, occupation militaire, centres de détention à l'étranger, mouvements séparatistes soutenus par un Etat étranger, éloignement des étrangers, entraide judiciaire et administrative internationale, exequatur de décisions étrangères violant les droits de l'homme... Ces thèmes, et d'autres, sont abordés dans l'ouvrage sous l'angle du Pacte ONU II, de la CEDH, et de la Convention et la Déclaration américaines dans une approche comparative et systématique. L'ouvrage analyse en détail la jurisprudence et la pratique internationales relatives à ces instruments. L'auteur est avocat au Barreau du Canton de Vaud (Lausanne) et titulaire d'un LL.M. de l'Université de Cambridge.

Raising the Level of Moral Thinking among Managers Will Not Help. Kohlberg's Conventionality and Systemic Ethical Flaws in Business

Business ethicists often assume that unethical behavior arises when individuals deviate from the norms and responsibilities that are institutionalized to frame economic activities. People's greed motivates them to violate the rules of the game. In Kohlberg's terms, it is assumed that such actors make decisions in a preconventional way and act opportunistically. In this article, we propose an alternative interpretation of deviant behavior, arguing that such behavior does not result from a lack of conventional moral guidance but rather from the fact that characteristics attributed to preconventional morality by Kohlberg - the purely incentive and punishment driven opportunistic morality - have become the conventionalized morality. The prevailing norms that economic actors have internalized as their yardstick are those of the preconventional Homo economicus. Not the deviation from, but the compliance with the rules of the game explains many forms of harmful and illegal decisions made in corporations.

Coffee and tea intake and risk of head and neck cancer: pooled analysis in the International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium.

BACKGROUND: Only a few studies have explored the relation between coffee and tea intake and head and neck cancers, with inconsistent results. METHODS: We pooled individual-level data from nine case-control studies of head and neck cancers, including 5,139 cases and 9,028 controls. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: Caffeinated coffee intake was inversely related with the risk of cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx: the ORs were 0.96 (95% CI, 0.94-0.98) for an increment of 1 cup per day and 0.61 (95% CI, 0.47-0.80) in drinkers of >4 cups per day versus nondrinkers. This latter estimate was consistent for different anatomic sites (OR, 0.46; 95% CI, 0.30-0.71 for oral cavity; OR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.41-0.82 for oropharynx/hypopharynx; and OR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.37-1.01 for oral cavity/pharynx not otherwise specified) and across strata of selected covariates. No association of caffeinated coffee drinking was found with laryngeal cancer (OR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.64-1.45 in drinkers of >4 cups per day versus nondrinkers). Data on decaffeinated coffee were too sparse for detailed analysis, but indicated no increased risk. Tea intake was not associated with head and neck cancer risk (OR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.89-1.11 for drinkers versus nondrinkers). CONCLUSIONS: This pooled analysis of case-control studies supports the hypothesis of an inverse association between caffeinated coffee drinking and risk of cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx. IMPACT: Given widespread use of coffee and the relatively high incidence and low survival of head and neck cancers, the observed inverse association may have appreciable public health relevance.