Activation of GPER-1 estradiol receptor downregulates production of testosterone in isolated rat Leydig cells and adult human testis.

PURPOSE: Estradiol (E2) modulates testicular functions including steroidogenesis, but the mechanisms of E2 signaling in human testis are poorly understood. GPER-1 (GPR30), a G protein-coupled membrane receptor, mediates rapid genomic and non-genomic response to estrogens. The aim of this study was to evaluate GPER-1 expression in the testis, and its role in estradiol dependent regulation of steroidogenesis in isolated rat Leydig cells and human testis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Isolated Leydig cells (LC) from adult rats and human testicular tissue were used in this study. Expression and localization studies of GPER-1 were performed with qRT-PCR, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry and Western Blot. Luteinizing Hormone (LH) -stimulated, isolated LC were incubated with estradiol, G-1 (GPER-1-selective agonist), and estrogen receptor antagonist ICI 182,780. Testosterone production was measured with radioimmunoassay. LC viability after incubation with G-1 was measured using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium, inner salt (MTS) assay. RESULTS: GPER-1 mRNA is abundantly expressed in rat LC and human testis. Co-localization experiments showed high expression levels of GPER-1 protein in LC. E2-dependent activation of GPER-1 lowers testosterone production in isolated rats LCs and in human testis, with statistically and clinically significant drops in testosterone production by 20-30% as compared to estradiol-naïve LC. The exposure to G-1 does not affect viability of isolated LCs. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that activation of GPER-1 lowers testosterone levels in the rat and human testis. The expression of GPER-1 in human testis, which lack ERα, makes it an exciting target for developing new agents affecting testosterone production in men.

Lipoprotein lipase and leptin are accumulated in different secretory compartments in rat adipocytes.

Adipose cells produce and secrete several physiologically important proteins, such as lipoprotein lipase (LPL), leptin, adipsin, Acrp30, etc. However, secretory pathways in adipocytes have not been characterized, and vesicular carriers responsible for the accumulation and transport of secreted proteins have not been identified. We have compared the intracellular localization of two proteins secreted from adipose cells: leptin and LPL. Adipocytes accumulate large amounts of both proteins, suggesting that neither of them is targeted to the constitutive secretory pathway. By means of velocity centrifugation in sucrose gradients, equilibrium density centrifugation in iodixanol gradients, and immunofluorescence confocal microscopy, we determined that LPL and leptin were localized in different membrane structures. LPL was found mainly in the endoplasmic reticulum with a small pool being present in low density membrane vesicles that may represent a secretory compartment in adipose cells. Virtually all intracellular leptin was localized in these low density secretory vesicles. Insulin-sensitive Glut4 vesicles did not contain either LPL or leptin. Thus, secretion from adipose cells is controlled both at the exit from the endoplasmic reticulum as well as at the level of "downstream" secretory vesicles.

Oxygen consumption in collagenase-liberated rat adipocytes in relation to cell size and age.

Oxygen consumption of collagenase-liberated rat adipocytes was measured by two different techniques: a microspectrophotometric method using hemoglobin as indicator of respiration and a technique using the oxygen electrode. These two completely different techniques gave similar values for oxygen consumption. With the spectrophotometric method, the oxygen consumption of single fat cells was determined. A close positive correlation (r = greater than 0.90) between oxygen consumption and fat cell size was observed in each tissue examined. With the oxygen electrode technique, oxygen consumption of adipocyte suspensions from young (40 days, 180 g) and old (90 days, 480 g) rats was examined. Fat cells of the suspensions were separated into classes of different size by a flotation technique. A significant positive correlation between fat cell size and oxygen consumption was observed in both young (r = 0.88) and old (r = 0.95) rats. However, the slope was much steeper in young rats. At a cell weight of 0.1 microgram the oxygen consumption was 0.364 and 0.086 microL O2/10(6) cells/min-1 in young and old rats, respectively. In the literature, a number of separate metabolic pathways have been found to be related positively to fat cell size and negatively to age. We conclude that these scattered metabolic observations are in agreement with integrated data on energy expenditure as evaluated from oxygen consumption. Estimations of the energy expenditure of adipose tissue indicates that this tissue is responsible for about 1% and 0.5% of the total energy expenditure in young and old rats, respectively.

Fatty acids decrease IDX-1 expression in rat pancreatic islets and reduce GLUT2, glucokinase, insulin, and somatostatin levels.

IDX-1 (islet/duodenum homeobox-1) is a transcription factor expressed in the duodenum and pancreatic beta and delta cells. It is required for embryonic development of the pancreas and transactivates the Glut2, glucokinase, insulin, and somatostatin genes. Here we show that exposure of isolated rat pancreatic islets to palmitic acid induced a approximately 70% decrease in IDX-1 mRNA and protein expression as well as 40 and 65% decreases in the binding activity of IDX-1 for its cognate cis-regulatory elements of the Glut2 and insulin promoters, respectively. The inhibitory effect of palmitic acid required its mitochondrial oxidation since it was prevented by the carnitine palmitoyltransferase I inhibitor bromopalmitic acid. The palmitic acid effect on IDX-1 was correlated with decreases in GLUT2 and glucokinase expression of 40 and 25%, respectively, at both the mRNA and protein levels. Insulin and somatostatin mRNA expression was also decreased by 40 and 60%, whereas glucagon mRNA expression was not modified. After 48 h of exposure to fatty acids, total islet insulin, somatostatin, and glucagon contents were decreased by 85, 55, and 65%, respectively. At the same time, total hormone release was strongly stimulated (13-fold) for glucagon, whereas its was only marginally increased for insulin and somatostatin (1.5- and 1.7-fold, respectively). These results indicate that elevated fatty acid levels 1) negatively regulate Idx-1 expression; 2) decrease the expression of genes transactivated by IDX-1 such as those for GLUT2, glucokinase, insulin, and somatostatin; and 3) lead to an important increase in glucagon synthesis and secretion. Fatty acids thus have pleiotropic effects on pancreatic islet gene expression, and the negative control of Idx-1 expression may be an initial event in the development of these multiple defects.

Distinct ASIC currents are expressed in rat putative nociceptors and are modulated by nerve injury.

The H(+)-gated acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are expressed in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurones. Studies with ASIC knockout mice indicated either a pro-nociceptive or a modulatory role of ASICs in pain sensation. We have investigated in freshly isolated rat DRG neurones whether neurones with different ASIC current properties exist, which may explain distinct cellular roles, and we have investigated ASIC regulation in an experimental model of neuropathic pain. Small-diameter DRG neurones expressed three different ASIC current types which were all preferentially expressed in putative nociceptors. Type 1 currents were mediated by ASIC1a homomultimers and characterized by steep pH dependence of current activation in the pH range 6.8-6.0. Type 3 currents were activated in a similar pH range as type 1, while type 2 currents were activated at pH < 6. When activated by acidification to pH 6.8 or 6.5, the probability of inducing action potentials correlated with the ASIC current density. Nerve injury induced differential regulation of ASIC subunit expression and selective changes in ASIC function in DRG neurones, suggesting a complex reorganization of ASICs during the development of neuropathic pain. In summary, we describe a basis for distinct cellular functions of different ASIC types in small-diameter DRG neurones.

Impaired activation of protein kinase C-zeta by insulin and phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-(PO4)3 in cultured preadipocyte-derived adipocytes and myotubes of obese subjects.

Insulin resistance in obesity is partly due to diminished glucose transport in myocytes and adipocytes, but underlying mechanisms are uncertain. Insulin-stimulated glucose transport requires activation of phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase (3K), operating downstream of insulin receptor substrate-1. PI3K stimulates glucose transport through increases in PI-3,4,5-(PO(4))(3) (PIP(3)), which activates atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) and protein kinase B (PKB/Akt). However, previous studies suggest that activation of aPKC, but not PKB, is impaired in intact muscles and cultured myocytes of obese subjects. Presently, we examined insulin activation of glucose transport and signaling factors in cultured adipocytes derived from preadipocytes harvested during elective liposuction in lean and obese women. Relative to adipocytes of lean women, insulin-stimulated [(3)H]2-deoxyglucose uptake and activation of insulin receptor substrate-1/PI3K and aPKCs, but not PKB, were diminished in adipocytes of obese women. Additionally, the direct activation of aPKCs by PIP(3) in vitro was diminished in aPKCs isolated from adipocytes of obese women. Similar impairment in aPKC activation by PIP(3) was observed in cultured myocytes of obese glucose-intolerant subjects. These findings suggest the presence of defects in PI3K and aPKC activation that persist in cultured cells and limit insulin-stimulated glucose transport in adipocytes and myocytes of obese subjects.

Calcium-sensing receptors modulate renin release in vivo and in vitro in the rat.

OBJECTIVES: Calcium-sensing receptors (CaSRs) have been localized in the juxtaglomerular apparatus where they may contribute to the regulation of renin release. In the present study, we investigated the in-vitro and in-vivo effects of the calcimimetic R-568 on renin release. METHODS: In vitro, the effect of calcimimetics on renin release was assessed by incubating freshly isolated rat juxtaglomerular cells with or without R-568 (1 and 10 mumol/l) in serum-free medium in the presence or absence of forskolin or CaCl2. In vivo, we measured the impact of R-568 (20 ng/min intravenously) on the acute changes in plasma renin activity (PRA) induced by either a 90 min infusion of the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor captopril, or the beta-receptor agonist isoproterenol, or of a vehicle in or after a furosemide challenge in conscious Wistar rats. RESULTS: In vitro, R-568 dose-dependently blunted renin release, but also reduced the increase in renin due to forskolin (P < 0.01). Both isoproterenol and enalapril increased in vivo PRA to 3.1 +/- 0.3 and 3.7 +/- 0.5 ng Ang I/ml per h, respectively (P < 0.01), compared with vehicle (1.5 +/- 0.2 ng Ang I/ml per h). R-568 significantly reduced PRA to 2.1 +/- 0.1 ng/ml per h in isoproterenol-treated rats and to 1.6 +/- 0.2 ng/ml per h in enalapril-treated rats (P < 0.05). In low-salt treated animals, acute infusion of furosemide increased PRA from 8.7 +/- 3.2 to 18.6 +/- 2.3, whereas R-568 partially blunted this rise to 11.2 +/- 1.5 (P = 0.02). In vivo, R-568 significantly lowered serum calcium and PTH1-84, but the drug-induced changes in PRA were independent of the changes in calcium and parathyroid hormone. CONCLUSION: After the recent discovery of CaSRs in juxtaglomerular cells of mice, our results confirm the presence of such receptors in rats and demonstrate that these receptors modulate renin release both in vitro and in vivo. This suggests that CaSRs play a role as a regulatory pathway of renin release.

Etude de la toxicité hépatique de la cocaïne associée à de l'alcool: Effets de l'éthanol sur le métabolisme de la cocaïne dan les hépatocytes de rat en suspension et dans un modèle enzymatique humain

Le but essentiel de notre travail a été d?étudier la capacité du foie, premier organe de métabolisation des xénobiotiques, à dégrader la cocaïne en présence d?éthanol, à l?aide de deux modèles expérimentaux, à savoir un modèle cellulaire (les hépatocytes de rat en suspension) et un modèle acellulaire (modèle reconstitué in vitro à partir d?enzymes purifiées de foie humain). La première partie a pour objectifs de rechercher les voies de métabolisation de la cocaïne qui sont inhibées et / ou stimulées en présence d?éthanol, sur hépatocytes isolés de rat. Dans ce but, une méthode originale permettant de séparer et de quantifier simultanément la cocaïne, le cocaéthylène et huit de leurs métabolites respectifs a été développée par Chromatographie Phase Gazeuse couplée à la Spectrométrie de Masse (CPG / SM). Nos résultats préliminaires indiquent que l?éthanol aux trois concentrations testées (20, 40 et 80 mM) n?a aucun effet sur la cinétique de métabolisation de la cocaïne. Notre étude confirme que l?addition d?éthanol à des cellules hépatiques de rat en suspension supplémentées en cocaïne résulte en la formation précoce de benzoylecgonine et de cocaéthylène. L?apparition retardée d?ecgonine méthyl ester démontre l?activation d?une deuxième voie de détoxification. La production tardive d?ecgonine indique une dégradation de la benzoylecgonine et de l?ecgonine méthyl ester. De plus, la voie d?oxydation intervenant dans l?induction du stress oxydant en produisant de la norcocaïne est tardivement stimulée. Enfin, notre étude montre une métabolisation complète de la concentration initiale en éthanol par les hépatocytes de rat en suspension. La deuxième partie a pour but de déterminer s?il existe d?autres enzymes que les carboxylesterases formes 1 et 2 humaines ayant une capacité à métaboliser la cocaïne seule ou associée à de l?éthanol. Pour ce faire, une méthode de micropurification par chromatographie liquide (Smart System®) a été mise au point. Dans le cadre de nos dosages in situ de la cocaïne, du cocaéthylène, de la benzoylecgonine, de l?acide benzoïque et de la lidocaïne, une technique par Chromatographie Liquide Haute Performance couplée à une Détection par Barrette de Diode (CLHP / DBD) et une méthode de dosage de l?éthanol par Chromatographie Phase Gazeuse couplée à une Détection par Ionisation de Flamme équipée d?un injecteur à espace de tête (espace de tête CPG / DIF) ont été développées. La procédure de purification nous a permis de suspecter la présence d?autres enzymes que les carboxylesterases formes 1 et 2 de foie humain impliquées dans le métabolisme de la cocaïne et déjà isolées. A partir d?un modèle enzymatique reconstitué in vitro, nos résultats préliminaires indiquent que d?autres esterases que les formes 1 et 2 de foie humain sont impliquées dans l?élimination de la cocaïne, produisant benzoylecgonine et ecgonine méthyl ester. De plus, nous avons montré que les sensibilités de ces enzymes à l?éthanol sont variables.<br/><br/>The main purpose of our work was to study the ability of the liver, as the first organ to metabolise xenobiotic substances, to degrade cocaine in the presence of ethanol. In order to do this, we used two experimental models, namely a cellular model (rat liver cells in suspension) and an a-cellular model (model reconstructed in vitro from purified human liver enzymes). The purpose of the first part of our study was to look for cocaine metabolising processes which were inhibited and / or stimulated by the presence of ethanol, in isolated rat liver cells. With this aim in mind, an original method for simultaneously separating and quantifying cocaine, cocaethylene and eight of their respective metabolites was developed by Vapour Phase Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry (VPC / MS). Our preliminary results point out that ethanol at three tested concentrations (20, 40 et 80 mM) have no effect on the kinetic of metabolisation of cocaine. Our study confirms that the addition of alcohol to rat liver cells in suspension, supplemented with cocaine, results in the premature formation of ecgonine benzoyl ester and cocaethylene. The delayed appearance of ecgonine methyl ester shows that a second detoxification process is activated. The delayed production of ecgonine indicates a degradation of the ecgonine benzoyl ester and the ecgonine methyl ester. Moreover, the oxidising process which occurs during the induction of the oxidising stress, producing norcocaine, is stimulated at a late stage. Finally, our study shows the complete metabolisation of the initial alcohol concentration by the rat liver cells in suspension. The second part consisted in determining if enzymes other than human carboxylesterases 1 and 2, able to metabolise cocaine on its own or with alcohol, existed. To do this, a micropurification method us ing liquid phase chromatography (Smart System®) was developed. A technique based on High Performance Liquid Chromatography coupled with a Diode Array Detection (HPLC / DAD) in the in situ proportioning of cocaine, cocaethylene, ecgonine benzoyl ester, benzoic acid and lidocaine, and a method for proportioning alcohol by quantifying the head space using Vapour Phase Chromatography coupled with a Flame Ionisation Detection (head space VPC / FID) were used. The purification procedure pointed to the presence of enzymes other than the human liver carboxylesterases, forms 1 and 2, involved in the metabolism of cocaine and already isolated. The preliminary results drawn from an enzymatic model reconstructed in vitro indicate that human liver carboxylesterases, other than forms 1 and 2, are involved in the elimination of cocaine, producing ecgonine benzoyl ester and ecgonine methyl ester. Moreover, we have shown that the sensitivity of these enzymes to alcohol is variable.

Insulin secretion is regulated by the glucose-dependent production of islet beta cell macrophage migration inhibitory factor.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), originally identified as a cytokine secreted by T lymphocytes, was found recently to be both a pituitary hormone and a mediator released by immune cells in response to glucocorticoid stimulation. We report here that the insulin-secreting beta cell of the islets of Langerhans expresses MIF and that its production is regulated by glucose in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. MIF and insulin colocalize by immunocytochemistry within the secretory granules of the pancreatic islet beta cells, and once released, MIF appears to regulate insulin release in an autocrine fashion. In perifusion studies performed with isolated rat islets, immunoneutralization of MIF reduced the first and second phase of the glucose-induced insulin secretion response by 39% and 31%, respectively. Conversely, exogenously added recombinant MIF was found to potentiate insulin release. Constitutive expression of MIF antisense RNA in the insulin-secreting INS-1 cell line inhibited MIF protein synthesis and decreased significantly glucose-induced insulin release. MIF is therefore a glucose-dependent, islet cell product that regulates insulin secretion in a positive manner and may play an important role in carbohydrate metabolism.

Connexin-36 contributes to control function of insulin-producing cells.

Connexin-36 (Cx36) is a gap junction protein expressed by the insulin-producing beta-cells. We investigated the contribution of this protein in normal beta-cell function by using a viral gene transfer approach to alter Cx36 content in the insulin-producing line of INS-1E cells and rat pancreatic islets. Transcripts for Cx43, Cx45, and Cx36 were detected by reverse transcriptase-PCR in freshly isolated pancreatic islets, whereas only a transcript for Cx36 was detected in INS-1E cells. After infection with a sense viral vector, which induced de novo Cx36 expression in the Cx-defective HeLa cells we used to control the transgene expression, Western blot, immunofluorescence, and freeze-fracture analysis showed a large increase of Cx36 within INS-1E cell membranes. In contrast, after infection with an antisense vector, Cx36 content was decreased by 80%. Glucose-induced insulin release and insulin content were decreased, whether infected INS-1E cells expressed Cx36 levels that were largely higher or lower than those observed in wild-type control cells. In both cases, basal insulin secretion was unaffected. Comparable observations on basal secretion and insulin content were made in freshly isolated rat pancreatic islets. The data indicate that large changes in Cx36 alter insulin content and, at least in INS-1E cells, also affect glucose-induced insulin release.

NF-kappaB inhibits sodium transport via down-regulation of SGK1 in renal collecting duct principal cells.

Tubulointerstitial inflammation is a common feature of renal diseases. We have investigated the relationship between inflammation and Na(+) transport in the collecting duct (CD) using the mCCD(cl1) and mpkCDD(cl4) principal cell models. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) decreased basal and aldosterone-stimulated amiloride-sensitive transepithelial current in a time-dependent manner. This effect was associated with a decrease in serum and glucocorticoid-regulated kinase 1 (SGK1) mRNA and protein levels followed by a decrease in epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) alpha-subunit mRNA levels. The LPS-induced decrease in SGK1 expression was confirmed in isolated rat CD. This decreased expression of either SGK1 or the ENaC alpha-subunit was not due to enhanced degradation of mRNA. In contrast, LPS inhibited transcriptional activity of the SGK1 promoter measured by luciferase-reporter gene assay. The effect of LPS was not mediated by inhibition of mineralocorticoid or glucocorticoid receptor, because expression of both receptors was unchanged and blockade of either receptor by spironolactone or RU486, respectively, did not prevent the down-regulation of SGK1. The effect of LPS was mediated by the canonical NF-kappaB pathway, as overexpression of a constitutively active mutant, IKKbeta (inhibitor of nuclear factor kappaB kinase-beta) decreased SGK1 mRNA levels, and knockdown of p65 NF-kappaB subunit by small interfering RNA increased SGK1 mRNA levels. Chromatin immunoprecipitation showed that LPS increased p65 binding to two NF-kappaB sites along the SGK1 promoter. In conclusion, we show that activation of the NF-kappaB pathway down-regulates SGK1 expression, which might lead to decreased ENaC alpha-subunit expression, ultimately resulting in decreased Na(+) transport.

The scaffold protein IB1/JIP-1 is a critical mediator of cytokine-induced apoptosis in pancreatic beta cells.

In insulin-secreting cells, cytokines activate the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), which contributes to a cell signaling towards apoptosis. The JNK activation requires the presence of the murine scaffold protein JNK-interacting protein 1 (JIP-1) or human Islet-brain 1(IB1), which organizes MLK3, MKK7 and JNK for proper signaling specificity. Here, we used adenovirus-mediated gene transfer to modulate IB1/JIP-1 cellular content in order to investigate the contribution of IB1/JIP-1 to beta-cell survival. Exposure of the insulin-producing cell line INS-1 or isolated rat pancreatic islets to cytokines (interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1beta) induced a marked reduction of IB1/JIP-1 content and a concomitant increase in JNK activity and apoptosis rate. This JNK-induced pro-apoptotic program was prevented in INS-1 cells by overproducing IB1/JIP-1 and this effect was associated with inhibition of caspase-3 cleavage. Conversely, reducing IB1/JIP-1 content in INS-1 cells and isolated pancreatic islets induced a robust increase in basal and cytokine-stimulated apoptosis. In heterozygous mice carrying a selective disruption of the IB1/JIP-1 gene, the reduction in IB1/JIP-1 content in happloinsufficient isolated pancreatic islets was associated with an increased JNK activity and basal apoptosis. These data demonstrate that modulation of the IB1-JIP-1 content in beta cells is a crucial regulator of JNK signaling pathway and of cytokine-induced apoptosis.

Expression of interleukin-3 and tumor necrosis factor-beta mRNAs in cultured microglia.

The function of interleukin-3 (or multi-CSF) in the hemopoietic system has been studied in great detail. Although its growth promoting activity on brain microglial cells has been confirmed both in vitro and in vivo, its presence in the brain and even in cultured brain cells has repeatedly been questioned. We have shown recently that isolated rat microglia express mRNA(IL-3) and synthesize IL-3 polypeptide. It is shown here by use of the PCR method, that mRNA(IL-3) is found also in C6 glioblastoma, in rat aggregate cultures, and in newborn and adult rat brain. Quantitation of amplified cDNA(IL-3) was achieved by non-competitive RT-PCR using an elongated internal standard. IL-3 messenger RNA was almost undetectable in vivo and low in (serum-free) aggregate cultures. In isolated microglia, mRNA(IL-3) was increased upon treatment with LPS, PHA, with the cytokines IL-1 or TNF-alpha, with retinoic acid, dbcAMP or the phorbol ester TPA. Effects of LPS were inhibited by dexamethasone, while the glucocorticoid by itself had no effect on basal IL-3 expression. LPS increased mRNA(IL-3) in a concentration-dependent manner beginning with 10 pg/ml and reaching plateau levels at 10 ng/ml. LPS also increased mRNAs of TNF-alpha and TNF-beta. TNF-alpha mRNA was already detectable in untreated microglia and LPS-increased levels were sustained for a few days. In contrast, TNF-beta mRNA was observed only between 4 and 16 h of LPS incubation. It was absent in LPS-free microglia, and after 24 h of LPS-treatment or later.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Transcriptional activation of the macrophage migration-inhibitory factor gene by the corticotropin-releasing factor is mediated by the cyclic adenosine 3',5'- monophosphate responsive element-binding protein CREB in pituitary cells.

Macrophage migration-inhibitory factor (MIF) has recently been identified as a pituitary hormone that functions as a counterregulatory modulator of glucocorticoid action within the immune system. In the anterior pituitary gland, MIF is expressed in TSH- and ACTH-producing cells, and its secretion is induced by CRF. To investigate MIF function and regulation within pituitary cells, we initiated the characterization of the MIF 5'-regulatory region of the gene. The -1033 to +63 bp of the murine MIF promoter was cloned 5' to a luciferase reporter gene and transiently transfected into freshly isolated rat anterior pituitary cells. This construct drove high basal transcriptional activity that was further enhanced after stimulation with CRF or with an activator of adenylate cyclase. These transcriptional effects were associated with a concomitant rise in ACTH secretion in the transfected cells and by an increase in MIF gene expression as assessed by Northern blot analysis. A cAMP-responsive element (CRE) was identified within the MIF promoter region which, once mutated, abolished the cAMP responsiveness of the gene. Using this newly identified CRE, DNA-binding activity was detected by gel retardation assay in nuclear extracts prepared from isolated anterior pituitary cells and AtT-20 corticotrope tumor cells. Supershift experiments using antibodies against the CRE-binding protein CREB, together with competition assays and the use of recombinant CREB, allowed the detection of CREB-binding activity with the identified MIF CRE. These data demonstrate that CREB is the mediator of the CRF-induced MIF gene transcription in pituitary cells through an identified CRE in the proximal region of the MIF promoter.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha is a phosphoprotein: regulation by insulin.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are members of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily implicated in adipocyte differentiation. The observations that PPAR alpha is a regulator of hepatic lipid metabolism and that the insulin-sensitizing thiazolidinediones are ligands for PPAR gamma suggest that cross-talk might exist between insulin signaling and PPAR activity, possibly through insulin-induced PPAR phosphorylation. Immunoprecipitation of endogenous PPAR alpha from primary rat adipocytes prelabeled with [32P]-orthophosphate and pretreated for 2 h with vanadate and okadaic acid demonstrated for the first time that PPAR alpha is a phosphoprotein in vivo. Treatment with insulin induced a time-dependent increase in PPAR phosphorylation showing a 3-fold increase after 30 min. Insulin also increased the phosphorylation of human PPAR alpha expressed in CV-1 cells. These changes in phosphorylation were paralleled by enhanced transcriptional activity of PPAR alpha and gamma. Transfection studies in CV-1 cells and HepG2 cells revealed a nearly 2-fold increase of PPAR activity in the presence of insulin. In contrast, insulin had no effect on the transcriptional activity of transfected thyroid hormone receptor in CV-1 cells, suggesting a PPAR-specific effect. Thus, insulin stimulates PPAR alpha phosphorylation and enhances the transcriptional activity of PPAR, suggesting that the transcriptional activity of this nuclear hormone receptor might be modulated by insulin-mediated phosphorylation.