Biopolymers

Plants naturally synthesize a variety of polymers that have been used by mankind as a source of useful biomaterials. For example, cellulose, the main constituent of plant cell wall and the most abundant polymer on earth, has been used for several thousand years as a source of fibers for various fabrics. Similarly, rubber extracted from the bark of the tree Hevea brasiliensis, has been a major source of elastomers until the development of similar synthetic polymers. In the last century, the usefulness of plant polymers as biomaterials has been expanded through the chemical modification of the natural polymers. For example, a number of plastics have been made by substituting the hydroxyl groups present on the glucose moiety of cellulose with larger groups, such as nitrate or acetate, giving rise to materials such as cellulose acetate, a clear plastic used in consumer products such as toothbrush handles and combs. Similarly, starch has been used in the manufacture of plastics by either using it in blends with synthetic polymers or as the main constituent in biodegradable plastics. The advent of transformation and expres- sion of foreign genes in plants has created the possibility of expanding the usefulness of plants to include the synthesis of a range of biomolecules. In view of the capacity of certain crops to produce a large quantity of organic raw material at low cost, such as oils and starch, it is of interest to explore the possibility of using transgenic plants as efficient vectors for the synthesis of biopolymers. Such plant based biopolymers could replace, in part, the synthetic plastics and elastomers produced from petroleum, offering the advantage of renewability and sustainability. Furthermore, being natural pro- ducts, biopolymers are usually biodegradable and can thus contribute to alleviate problems associated with the management of plastic waste. In this article, the emphasis will be on the use of transgenic plants for the synthesis of two novel classes of industrially useful polymers, namely protein based polymers made from natural or artificial genes, and polyhydroxyalkanoates, a family of bacterial poly- esters having the properties of biodegradable plastics and elastomers.

Cellules gliales et douleur chronique: du laboratoire a l'espoir clinique [Glial cells and chronic pain: from the laboratory to clinical hope].

Despite their high prevalence, associated disability and seemingly rich pharmacopeia, the various forms of chronic pain remain frequently intractable. The past decade witnessed the rise of a concept stating that non-neuronal cells of the central nervous system, astrocytes and microglia, are crucial elements in pathological pain. This review gathers and summarizes the experimental data underpinning this theory in animal models and addresses their pertinence in humans. The potential opportunities and constraints of glial inhibition are exposed and compared to more moderate strategies of selective modulation. This therapeutic hope is particularly highlighted in our discussion of the first completed clinical trials employing glial inhibitors in the treatment of chronic pain.

European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines for the management of temperature in patients with acute ischemic stroke.

BACKGROUND: Hyperthermia is a frequent complication in patients with acute ischemic stroke. On the other hand, therapeutically induced hypothermia has shown promising potential in animal models of focal cerebral ischemia. This Guideline Document presents the European Stroke Organisation guidelines for the management of temperature in patients with acute ischemic stroke. METHODS: A multidisciplinary group identified related questions and developed its recommendations based on evidence from randomized controlled trials elaborating the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach. This Guideline Document was reviewed within the European Stroke Organisation and externally and was approved by the European Stroke Organisation Guidelines Committee and the European Stroke Organisation Executive Committee. RESULTS: We found low-quality evidence, and therefore, we cannot make any recommendation for treating hyperthermia as a means to improve functional outcome and/or survival in patients with acute ischemic stroke and hyperthermia; moderate evidence to suggest against routine prevention of hyperthermia with antipyretics as a means to improve functional outcome and/or survival in patients with acute ischemic stroke and normothermia; very low-quality evidence to suggest against routine induction of hypothermia as a means to improve functional outcome and/or survival in patients with acute ischemic stroke. CONCLUSIONS: The currently available data about the management of temperature in patients with acute ischemic stroke are limited, and the strengths of the recommendations are therefore weak. We call for new randomized controlled trials as well as recruitment of eligible patients to ongoing randomized controlled trials to allow for better-informed recommendations in the future.

Spinal Cord T-Cell Infiltration in the Rat Spared Nerve Injury Model: A Time Course Study.

The immune system is involved in the development of neuropathic pain. In particular, the infiltration of T-lymphocytes into the spinal cord following peripheral nerve injury has been described as a contributor to sensory hypersensitivity. We used the spared nerve injury (SNI) model of neuropathic pain in Sprague Dawley adult male rats to assess proliferation, and/or protein/gene expression levels for microglia (Iba1), T-lymphocytes (CD2) and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CD8). In the dorsal horn ipsilateral to SNI, Iba1 and BrdU stainings revealed microglial reactivity and proliferation, respectively, with different durations. Iba1 expression peaked at D4 and D7 at the mRNA and protein level, respectively, and was long-lasting. Proliferation occurred almost exclusively in Iba1 positive cells and peaked at D2. Gene expression observation by RT-qPCR array suggested that T-lymphocytes attracting chemokines were upregulated after SNI in rat spinal cord but only a few CD2/CD8 positive cells were found. A pronounced infiltration of CD2/CD8 positive T-cells was seen in the spinal cord injury (SCI) model used as a positive control for lymphocyte infiltration. Under these experimental conditions, we show early and long-lasting microglia reactivity in the spinal cord after SNI, but no lymphocyte infiltration was found.

Evangelium nach Thomas

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Molecular epidemiology reveals long-term changes in HIV type 1 subtype B transmission in Switzerland.

BACKGROUND: Sequence data from resistance testing offer unique opportunities to characterize the structure of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection epidemics. METHODS: We analyzed a representative set of HIV type 1 (HIV-1) subtype B pol sequences from 5700 patients enrolled in the Swiss HIV Cohort Study. We pooled these sequences with the same number of sequences from foreign epidemics, inferred a phylogeny, and identified Swiss transmission clusters as clades having a minimal size of 10 and containing >or=80% Swiss sequences. RESULTS: More than one-half of Swiss patients were included within 60 transmission clusters. Most transmission clusters were significantly dominated by specific transmission routes, which were used to identify the following patient groups: men having sex with men (MSM) (38 transmission clusters; average cluster size, 29 patients) or patients acquiring HIV through heterosexual contact (HETs) and injection drug users (IDUs) (12 transmission clusters; average cluster size, 144 patients). Interestingly, there were no transmission clusters dominated by sequences from HETs only. Although 44% of all HETs who were infected between 1983 and 1986 clustered with injection drug users, this percentage decreased to 18% for 2003-2006 (P<.001), indicating a diminishing role of injection drug users in transmission among HETs over time. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis suggests (1) the absence of a self-sustaining epidemic of HIV-1 subtype B in HETs in Switzerland and (2) a temporally decreasing clustering of HIV infections in HETs and IDUs.