PPAR beta a player in astrocyte metabolism and morphology

AbstractPPARP is a nuclear receptor responding in vivo to several free fatty acids, and implicated in cell metabolism, differentiation and survival. PPARp is ubiquitously expressed but shows high expression in the developing and adult brain. PPARp is expressed in different cell types such as neurons and astrocytes, where it might play a role in metabolism. To study this nuclear receptor the laboratory engineered a PPARP -/- mouse model. The aim of my PhD was to dissect the role of PPARP in astrocytes.Experiments in primary culture revealed that cortical astrocytes from PPARP -/- mouse have an impaired energetic metabolism. Unstimulated PPARP -/- astrocytes exhibit a 30% diminution in glucose uptake, correlating to a 30% decrease in lactate release and intracellular glucose. After acute stimulation by D- aspartate mimicking glutamate exposure, both WT and -/- astrocytes up-regulate their metabolism to respond to the increasing energy needed (ATP) for glutamate uptake. According to the Astrocyte Neuron Lactate Shuttle Hypothesis (ANLSH), the ratio between glucose uptake/ lactate release is 1. However, stimulated PPARp -/- astrocytes display a higher increase in lactate release than glucose uptake which remains lower than in WT. The extra glucose equivalents could come from the degradation of intra cellular glycogen stores, which indeed decrease in PPARP -/- cells upon stimulation. Lower glucose metabolism correlates with a decreased acute glutamate uptake in PPARP -/- astrocytes. Reciprocally, we also observed an increase of glutamate uptake and ATP production after treatment of WT astrocytes with a PPARp agonist. Glutamate transporter protein expression is not affected. However, their trafficking and localization might be altered as PPARp -/- astrocytes have higher cholesterol levels, which may also affect proper transporter structure in the membrane.Metabolism, transporter localization and cholesterol levels are respectively linked to cell mobility, cell cytoskeleton and cellular membrane composition. All three functions are important in astrocytes to in vivo acquire star shaped morphology, in a process known as stellation. PPARP -/- astrocytes showed an impaired acquired stellation in presence of neurons or chemical stimuli, as well as more actin stress fibers and cell adhesion structures. While non stellation of astrocytes is mainly an in vitro phenomenon, it reveals PPARp -/- primary astrocytes inability to respond to different exterior stimuli. These morphological phenotypes correlate with a slower migration in cell culture wound healing assays.This thesis work demonstrates that PPARp is implicated in cortical astrocyte glucose metabolism. PPARp absence leads to an unusual intracellular glycogen use. Added to the effect on acute glutamate uptake and astrocyte migration, PPARp could be an interesting target for neuroprotection therapies.RésuméPPARP est un récepteur nucléaire qui a pour ligands naturels certains acides gras libres. Il est impliqué dans le métabolisme, la différentiation et la survie des cellules. PPARP est ubiquitaire, et a une expression élevée dans le cerveau en développement ainsi qu'adulte. PPARp est exprimé dans différents types cellulaires tels que les neurones et les astrocytes, où il régule potentiellement leurs métabolismes. Pour étudier ce récepteur nucléaire, le laboratoire a créé un modèle de souris PPARp -/-. L'objectif de ma thèse est de comprendre le rôle de PPARp dans les astrocytes.Les expériences montrent un défaut du métabolisme énergétique dans les astrocytes corticaux primaires tirés de souris PPARp -/-. Sans stimulation, l'entrée du glucose dans les astrocytes PPARP -/- est diminuée de 30% ce qui correspond à une diminution de 30% du relargage du lactate. Après stimulation par du D-Aspartate qui mime une exposition au glutamate, les astrocytes WT et -/- augmentent leur métabolisme en réponse à la demande accrue en énergie (ATP) due à l'entrée du glutamate. D'après l'Astrocyte Neuron Lactate Shuttle Hypothesis (ANLSH), le ratio entre le glucose entrant et le lactate sortant est de 1. Cependant le relargage du lactate dans les astrocytes PPARP-/- est plus élevé que l'entrée du glucose. L'apport supplémentaire de glucose transformé en lactate pourrait provenir de la dégradation des stocks de glycogène intracellulaire, qui sont partiellement diminués après stimulation dans les cellules PPARP -/-. Un métabolisme plus faible du glucose corrèle avec une réduction de l'import du glutamate dans les astrocytes PPARp -/-. Réciproquement, nous observons une augmentation de l'import du glutamate et de la production d'ATP après traitement avec l'agoniste pour PPARp. Bien que l'expression des transporteurs de glutamate ne soit pas affectée, nous ne pouvons pas exclure que leur localisation et leur structure soient altérées du fait du niveau élevé de cholestérol dans les astrocytes PPARp -/-.Le métabolisme, la localisation des transporteurs et le niveau de cholestérol sont tous liés au cytosquelette, à la mobilité, et à la composition des membranes cellulaires. Toutes ces fonctions sont importantes pour les astrocytes pour acquérir leur morphologie in vivo. Les astrocytes PPARP -/- présentent un défaut de stellation, aussi bien en présence de neurones que de stimuli chimiques, ainsi qu'un plus grand nombre de fibres de stress (actine) et de structures d'adhésion cellulaire. Bien que les astrocytes non stellaires soient principalement observés in vitro, le défaut de stellation des astrocytes primaires PPARp -/- indique une incapacité à répondre aux différents stimuli extérieurs. Ces phénotypes morphologiques corrèlent avec une migration plus lente en cas de lésion de la culture.Ce travail de thèse a permis de démontrer l'implication de PPARP dans le métabolisme du glucose des astrocytes corticaux. L'absence de ce récepteur nucléaire amène à l'utilisation du glucose intracellulaire, auquel s'ajoutent les effets sur l'import du glutamate et la migration des astrocytes. PPARp aurait des effets neuroprotecteurs, et de ce fait pourrait être utilisé à des fins thérapeutiques.

Ionotropic and metabotropic mechanisms in chemoreception: 'chance or design'?

Chemosensory receptors convert an enormous diversity of chemical signals from the external world into a common language of electrical activity in the brain. Mammals and insects use several families of transmembrane receptor proteins to recognize distinct classes of volatile and non-volatile chemicals that are produced by conspecifics or other environmental sources. A comparison of the signalling mechanisms of mammalian and insect receptors has revealed an unexpected functional distinction: mammals rely almost exclusively on metabotropic ligand-binding receptors, which use second messenger signalling cascades to indirectly activate ion channels, whereas insects use ionotropic receptors, which are gated directly by chemical stimuli, thereby leading to neuronal depolarization. In this review, we consider possible reasons for this dichotomy, taking into account biophysical, cell biological, ecological and evolutionary influences on how information is extracted from chemosensory cues by these animal classes.

Bilateral olfactory sensory input enhances chemotaxis behavior.

Neural comparisons of bilateral sensory inputs are essential for visual depth perception and accurate localization of sounds in space. All animals, from single-cell prokaryotes to humans, orient themselves in response to environmental chemical stimuli, but the contribution of spatial integration of neural activity in olfaction remains unclear. We investigated this problem in Drosophila melanogaster larvae. Using high-resolution behavioral analysis, we studied the chemotaxis behavior of larvae with a single functional olfactory neuron on either the left or right side of the head, allowing us to examine unilateral or bilateral olfactory input. We developed new spectroscopic methods to create stable odorant gradients in which odor concentrations were experimentally measured. In these controlled environments, we observed that a single functional neuron provided sufficient information to permit larval chemotaxis. We found additional evidence that the overall accuracy of navigation is enhanced by the increase in the signal-to-noise ratio conferred by bilateral sensory input.

Multimodal stimulus coding by a gustatory sensory neuron in Drosophila larvae.

Accurate perception of taste information is crucial for animal survival. In adult Drosophila, gustatory receptor neurons (GRNs) perceive chemical stimuli of one specific gustatory modality associated with a stereotyped behavioural response, such as aversion or attraction. We show that GRNs of Drosophila larvae employ a surprisingly different mode of gustatory information coding. Using a novel method for calcium imaging in the larval gustatory system, we identify a multimodal GRN that responds to chemicals of different taste modalities with opposing valence, such as sweet sucrose and bitter denatonium, reliant on different sensory receptors. This multimodal neuron is essential for bitter compound avoidance, and its artificial activation is sufficient to mediate aversion. However, the neuron is also essential for the integration of taste blends. Our findings support a model for taste coding in larvae, in which distinct receptor proteins mediate different responses within the same, multimodal GRN.

Chemical sensing in Drosophila.

Chemical sensing begins when peripheral receptor proteins recognise specific environmental stimuli and translate them into spatial and temporal patterns of sensory neuron activity. The chemosensory system of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, has become a dominant model to understand this process, through its accessibility to a powerful combination of molecular, genetic and electrophysiological analysis. Recent results have revealed many surprises in the biology of peripheral chemosensation in Drosophila, including novel structural and signalling properties of the insect odorant receptors (ORs), combinatorial mechanisms of chemical recognition by the gustatory receptors (GRs), and the implication of Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) ion channels as a novel class of chemosensory receptors.

A new chemical tool (C0036E08) supports the role of adenosine A(2B) receptors in mediating human mast cell activation.

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways that involves many cell types, amongst which mast cells are known to be important. Adenosine, a potent bronchoconstricting agent, exerts its ability to modulate adenosine receptors of mast cells thereby potentiating derived mediator release, histamine being one of the first mediators to be released. The heterogeneity of sources of mast cells and the lack of highly potent ligands selective for the different adenosine receptor subtypes have been important hurdles in this area of research. In the present study we describe compound C0036E08, a novel ligand that has high affinity (pK(i) 8.46) for adenosine A(2B) receptors, being 9 times, 1412 times and 3090 times more selective for A(2B) receptors than for A(1), A(2A) and A(3) receptors, respectively. Compound C0036E08 showed antagonist activity at recombinant and native adenosine receptors, and it was able to fully block NECA-induced histamine release in freshly isolated mast cells from human bronchoalveolar fluid. C0036E08 has been shown to be a valuable tool for the identification of adenosine A(2B) receptors as the adenosine receptors responsible for the NECA-induced response in human mast cells. Considering the increasing interest of A(2B) receptors as a therapeutic target in asthma, this chemical tool might provide a base for the development of new anti-asthmatic drugs.

Chemical genetic analysis of cdc2p : new insights into the regulation of cytokinesis in "Schizosaccharomyces pombe"

RÉSUMÉ La protéine kinase cyciine-cdc2p (Cdk) joue un rôle fondamental dans la progression du cycle cellulaire dans la levure de fission Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Nous avons étudié le rôle de cdc2p dans la régulation de la cascade de septation ou SIN (septation initiation network) en mitose et en méiose. Le SIN contrôle l'initiation de la cytokinèse à la fin de la mitose, et est supposé être négativement régulé par cdc2p. Nous avons mutagénéisé le site actif de cdc2p afin qu'il puisse lier un analogue de l'ATP (PP1) qui agit comme inhibiteur. Cet analogue ne peut pas lier la kinase de type sauvage. Cette approche dite «chemical genetics» permet une meilleure résolution temporelle comparée à l'approche classique utilisant les mutants sensibles à une température élevée. Nous avons montré que ce mutant cdc2-as (analogue sensitive) est fonctionnel et que, in vitro, l'activité kinase est inhibée en présence de l'analogue. Les cellules portant cette mutation, contrairement aux cellules de type sauvage s'arrêtent de manière irréversible soit en G2 soit en G1 et G2, suivant la concentration de l'inhibiteur. L'inactivation de cdc2p-as dans des cellules arrêtées en métaphase conduit au recrutement asymétrique des protéines du SIN sur le pôle du fuseau mitotique et au recrutement des composants du SIN, ainsi que de la ß-(1,3)glucan synthase à l'anneau contractile. De plus, nos résultats montrent que l'orthologue de la phosphatase cdc14p dans S. pombe, fip1p/clp1p, joue un rôle dans la régulation de la localisation des protéines du SIN suite à l'inactivation de cdc2p. Finalement, l'activité de cdc2p est requise pour maintenir la polo-like kinase plo1p sur les pôles du fuseau mitotique dans les premiers stages de la mitose. C'est pourquoi nous concluons que l'inactivation de cdc2p est suffisante pour activer le SIN et promouvoir la cytokinèse. Dans une étude séparée, nous avons caractérisé des potentiellement nouveaux composants ou régulateurs du SIN qui ont été isolés dans deux criblages génétiques visant à isoler des mutants atténuants la signalisation du SIN. Summary : The cyclin dependent protein kinase (Cdk) cdc2p plays a central role in the cell cycle progression of fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. We have studied the role of cdc2p in regulating the septation initiation network (SIN) in mitosis and meiosis. The SIN regulates the initiation of cytokinesis at the end of mitosis and is thought to be inhibited by cdc2p. We have mutated the active site of cdc2p to permit binding of an inhibitory ATP analogue (PP1), which is unable to bind unmodified kinases. This "chemical genetic" approach provides a much higher temporal resolution than it can be achieved with classical temperature-sensitive mutants. We demonstrate that cdc2-as (analogue sensitive) is functional and that addition of PP1 inhibits cdc2p kinase activity in vitro. Cells carrying the cdc2-as allele, but not cdc2+, undergo reversible cell cycle arrest following addition of PP1 either in G2, or at both major commitment points in the cell cycle (G1 and G2), depending upon the concentration of PP1. Inactivation of cdc2p-as in cells arrested in early mitosis promotes both the asymmetric recruitment of SIN proteins to the spindle pole bodies (SPBs), and the recruitment of the most downstream SIN components and ß-(1,3)-glucan synthase to the contractile ring. Furthermore, our results indicate that the S. pombe orthologue of Cdc14p, flp1p/clp1p, plays a role in regulating the relocalisation of SIN proteins following inactivation of cdc2p, and that cdc2p activity is required to retain the polo like kinase plot p on the SPBs in early mitosis. Thus, we conclude that inactivation of cdc2p is sufficient to activate the SIN and to promote cytokinesis. In a separate study, we have initially characterised potential novel components or regulators of the SIN pathway identified by two genetic screens for mutants attenuating SIN signaling.

Predator-prey chemical warfare determines the expression of biocontrol genes by rhizosphere-associated Pseudomonas fluorescens.

Soil bacteria are heavily consumed by protozoan predators, and many bacteria have evolved defense strategies such as the production of toxic exometabolites. However, the production of toxins is energetically costly and therefore is likely to be adjusted according to the predation risk to balance the costs and benefits of predator defense. We investigated the response of the biocontrol bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens CHA0 to a common predator, the free-living amoeba Acanthamoeba castellanii. We monitored the effect of the exposure to predator cues or direct contact with the predators on the expression of the phlA, prnA, hcnA, and pltA genes, which are involved in the synthesis of the toxins, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG), pyrrolnitrin, hydrogen cyanide, and pyoluteorin, respectively. Predator chemical cues led to 2.2-, 2.0-, and 1.2-fold increases in prnA, phlA, and hcnA expression, respectively, and to a 25% increase in bacterial toxicity. The upregulation of the tested genes was related to the antiprotozoan toxicity of the corresponding toxins. Pyrrolnitrin and DAPG had the highest toxicity, suggesting that bacteria secrete a predator-specific toxin cocktail. The response of the bacteria was elicited by supernatants of amoeba cultures, indicating that water-soluble chemical compounds were responsible for induction of the bacterial defense response. In contrast, direct contact of bacteria with living amoebae reduced the expression of the four bacterial toxin genes by up to 50%, suggesting that protozoa can repress bacterial toxicity. The results indicate that predator-prey interactions are a determinant of toxin production by rhizosphere P. fluorescens and may have an impact on its biocontrol potential.

Chemical profiling of different hashish seizures by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and statistical methodology: a case report

Limited information is available regarding the methodology required to characterize hashish seizures for assessing the presence or the absence of a chemical link between two seizures. This casework report presents the methodology applied for assessing that two different police seizures were coming from the same block before this latter one was split. The chemical signature was extracted using GC-MS analysis and the implemented methodology consists in a study of intra- and inter-variability distributions based on the measurement of the chemical profiles similarity using a number of hashish seizures and the calculation of the Pearson correlation coefficient. Different statistical scenarios (i.e., a combination of data pretreatment techniques and selection of target compounds) were tested to find the most discriminating one. Seven compounds showing high discrimination capabilities were selected on which a specific statistical data pretreatment was applied. Based on the results, the statistical model built for comparing the hashish seizures leads to low error rates. Therefore, the implemented methodology is suitable for the chemical profiling of hashish seizures.

Towards the validation of "in silico" models and physicochemical filters to identify and characterize new chemical entities

Summary: Lipophilicity plays an important role in the determination and the comprehension of the pharmacokinetic behavior of drugs. It is usually expressed by the partition coefficient (log P) in the n-octanol/water system. The use of an additional solvent system (1,2-dichlorethane/water) is necessary to obtain complementary information, as the log Poct values alone are not sufficient to explain ail biological properties. The aim of this thesis is to develop tools allowing to predict lipophilicity of new drugs and to analyze the information yielded by those log P values. Part I presents the development of theoretical models used to predict lipophilicity. Chapter 2 shows the necessity to extend the existing solvatochromic analyses in order to predict correctly the lipophilicity of new and complex neutral compounds. In Chapter 3, solvatochromic analyses are used to develop a model for the prediction of the lipophilicity of ions. A global model was obtained allowing to estimate the lipophilicity of neutral, anionic and cationic solutes. Part II presents the detailed study of two physicochemical filters. Chapter 4 shows that the Discovery RP Amide C16 stationary phase allows to estimate lipophilicity of the neutral form of basic and acidic solutes, except of lipophilic acidic solutes. Those solutes present additional interactions with this particular stationary phase. In Chapter 5, 4 different IANI stationary phases are investigated. For neutral solutes, linear data are obtained whatever the IANI column used. For the ionized solutes, their retention is due to a balance of electrostatic and hydrophobie interactions. Thus no discrimination is observed between different series of solutes bearing the same charge, from one column to an other. Part III presents two examples illustrating the information obtained thanks to Structure-Properties Relationships (SPR). Comparing graphically lipophilicity values obtained in two different solvent systems allows to reveal the presence of intramolecular effects .such as internai H-bond (Chapter 6). SPR is used to study the partitioning of ionizable groups encountered in Medicinal Chemistry (Chapter7). Résumé La lipophilie joue un .rôle important dans la détermination et la compréhension du comportement pharmacocinétique des médicaments. Elle est généralement exprimée par le coefficient de partage (log P) d'un composé dans le système de solvants n-octanol/eau. L'utilisation d'un deuxième système de solvants (1,2-dichloroéthane/eau) s'est avérée nécessaire afin d'obtenir des informations complémentaires, les valeurs de log Poct seules n'étant pas suffisantes pour expliquer toutes les propriétés biologiques. Le but de cette thèse est de développer des outils permettant de prédire la lipophilie de nouveaux candidats médicaments et d'analyser l'information fournie par les valeurs de log P. La Partie I présente le développement de modèles théoriques utilisés pour prédire la lipophilie. Le chapitre 2 montre la nécessité de mettre à jour les analyses solvatochromiques existantes mais inadaptées à la prédiction de la lipophilie de nouveaux composés neutres. Dans le chapitre 3, la même méthodologie des analyses solvatochromiques est utilisée pour développer un modèle permettant de prédire la lipophilie des ions. Le modèle global obtenu permet la prédiction de la lipophilie de composés neutres, anioniques et cationiques. La Partie II présente l'étude approfondie de deux filtres physicochimiques. Le Chapitre 4 montre que la phase stationnaire Discovery RP Amide C16 permet la détermination de la lipophilie de la forme neutre de composés basiques et acides, à l'exception des acides très lipophiles. Ces derniers présentent des interactions supplémentaires avec cette phase stationnaire. Dans le Chapitre 5, 4 phases stationnaires IAM sont étudiées. Pour les composés neutres étudiés, des valeurs de rétention linéaires sont obtenues, quelque que soit la colonne IAM utilisée. Pour les composés ionisables, leur rétention est due à une balance entre des interactions électrostatiques et hydrophobes. Donc aucune discrimination n'est observée entre les différentes séries de composés portant la même charge d'une colonne à l'autre. La Partie III présente deux exemples illustrant les informations obtenues par l'utilisation des relations structures-propriétés. Comparer graphiquement la lipophilie mesurée dans deux différents systèmes de solvants permet de mettre en évidence la présence d'effets intramoléculaires tels que les liaisons hydrogène intramoléculaires (Chapitre 6). Cette approche des relations structures-propriétés est aussi appliquée à l'étude du partage de fonctions ionisables rencontrées en Chimie Thérapeutique (Chapitre 7) Résumé large public Pour exercer son effet thérapeutique, un médicament doit atteindre son site d'action en quantité suffisante. La quantité effective de médicament atteignant le site d'action dépend du nombre d'interactions entre le médicament et de nombreux constituants de l'organisme comme, par exemple, les enzymes du métabolisme ou les membranes biologiques. Le passage du médicament à travers ces membranes, appelé perméation, est un paramètre important à optimiser pour développer des médicaments plus puissants. La lipophilie joue un rôle clé dans la compréhension de la perméation passive des médicaments. La lipophilie est généralement exprimée par le coefficient de partage (log P) dans le système de solvants (non miscibles) n-octanol/eau. Les valeurs de log Poct seules se sont avérées insuffisantes pour expliquer la perméation à travers toutes les différentes membranes biologiques du corps humain. L'utilisation d'un système de solvants additionnel (le système 1,2-dichloroéthane/eau) a permis d'obtenir les informations complémentaires indispensables à une bonne compréhension du processus de perméation. Un grand nombre d'outils expérimentaux et théoriques sont à disposition pour étudier la lipophilie. Ce travail de thèse se focalise principalement sur le développement ou l'amélioration de certains de ces outils pour permettre leur application à un champ plus large de composés. Voici une brève description de deux de ces outils: 1)La factorisation de la lipophilie en fonction de certaines propriétés structurelles (telle que le volume) propres aux composés permet de développer des modèles théoriques utilisables pour la prédiction de la lipophilie de nouveaux composés ou médicaments. Cette approche est appliquée à l'analyse de la lipophilie de composés neutres ainsi qu'à la lipophilie de composés chargés. 2)La chromatographie liquide à haute pression sur phase inverse (RP-HPLC) est une méthode couramment utilisée pour la détermination expérimentale des valeurs de log Poct.

Determination of chemical composition and its relationship with optical properties of Ti-N and Ti-V-N sputtered thin films

In the investigation of thin films of transition metal nitrides, an essential role is played by the accurate determination of their chemical composition. Actually the chemical composition depends on the deposition parameters and influences the optical properties. These relations are illustrated in thin films of TiNx and (Ti1-yVy)N-x deposited by reactive magnetron sputtering from composite targets of the elements. By variation of the nitrogen partial pressure and the target composition, different samples have been obtained. The chemical composition has been measured by electron probe microanalysis at low irradiation voltages. The optical properties are evaluated by ex-situ ellipsometry. Using the screened Drude model, they are correlated with the differences in composition. Adding vanadium or nitrogen in Ti-N is shown to have the same effect on the optical properties.

Characterization of pupil responses to blue and red light stimuli in autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa due to NR2E3 mutation.

PURPOSE: We characterized the pupil responses that reflect rod, cone, and melanopsin function in a genetically homogeneous cohort of patients with autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa (adRP). METHODS: Nine patients with Gly56Arg mutation of the NR2E3 gene and 12 control subjects were studied. Pupil and subjective visual responses to red and blue light flashes over a 7 log-unit range of intensities were recorded under dark and light adaptation. The pupil responses were plotted against stimulus intensity to obtain red-light and blue-light response curves. RESULTS: In the dark-adapted blue-light stimulus condition, patients showed significantly higher threshold intensities for visual perception and for a pupil response compared to controls (P = 0.02 and P = 0.006, respectively). The rod-dependent, blue-light pupil responses decreased with disease progression. In contrast, the cone-dependent pupil responses (light-adapted red-light stimulus condition) did not differ between patients and controls. The difference in the retinal sensitivity to blue and red stimuli was the most sensitive parameter to detect photoreceptor dysfunction. Unexpectedly, the melanopsin-mediated pupil response was decreased in patients (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS: Pupil responses of patients with NR2E3-associated adRP demonstrated reduced retinal sensitivity to dim blue light under dark adaptation, presumably reflecting decreased rod function. Rod-dependent pupil responses were quantifiable in all patients, including those with non-recordable scotopic electroretinogram, and correlated with the extent of clinical disease. Thus, the chromatic pupil light reflex can be used to monitor photoreceptor degeneration over a larger range of disease progression compared to standard electrophysiology.