Impact of a program to prevent incivility towards and assault of healthcare staff in an ophtalmological emergency unit: study protocol for the PREVURGO On/Off trial.

BACKGROUND: The emergency department has been identified as an area within the health care sector with the highest reports of violence. The best way to control violence is to prevent it before it becomes an issue. Ideally, to prevent violent episodes we should eliminate all triggers of frustration and violence. Our study aims to assess the impact of a quality improvement multi-faceted program aiming at preventing incivility and violence against healthcare professionals working at the ophthalmological emergency department of a teaching hospital. METHODS/DESIGN: This study is a single-center prospective, controlled time-series study with an alternate-month design. The prevention program is based on the successive implementation of five complementary interventions: a) an organizational approach with a standardized triage algorithm and patient waiting number screen, b) an environmental approach with clear signage of the premises, c) an educational approach with informational videos for patients and accompanying persons in waiting rooms, d) a human approach with a mediator in waiting rooms and e) a security approach with surveillance cameras linked to the hospital security. The primary outcome is the rate of incivility or violence by patients, or those accompanying them against healthcare staff. All patients admitted to the ophthalmological emergency department, and those accompanying them, will be enrolled. In all, 45,260 patients will be included in over a 24-month period. The unit analysis will be the patient admitted to the emergency department. Data analysis will be blinded to allocation, but due to the nature of the intervention, physicians and patients will not be blinded. DISCUSSION: The strengths of this study include the active solicitation of event reporting, that this is a prospective study and that the study enables assessment of each of the interventions that make up the program. The challenge lies in identifying effective interventions, adapting them to the context of care in an emergency department, and thoroughly assessing their efficacy with a high level of proof.The study has been registered as a cRCT at clinicaltrials.gov (identifier: NCT02015884).

Prise en charge des coliques néphrétiques en urgence [Emergency management of renal colic]

Renal colic (RC) is a common problem in primary care practice. It is estimated that 5-12% of the general population will suffer once RC during his lifetime. The primary care physicians play a central role in the management of urolithiasis. This article summarizes the current recommendations in terms of renal colic emergency management: biological assessment, imaging, pain relief and specific treatment. The vast majority of patients only needs efficient antalgic treatment and an outpatient monitoring. A minimal assessment must however be undertaken to detect complicated RC that will require urgent treatment in urology department. The analysis of the stone after the crisis is crucial to set up a preventive treatment.

Novel anesthetics and other treatment strategies for refractory status epilepticus

Refractory status epilepticus (RSE)-that is, seizures resistant to at least two antiepileptic drugs (AEDs)-is generally managed with barbiturates, propofol, or midazolam, despite a low level of evidence (Rossetti, 2007). When this approach fails, the need for alternative pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic strategies emerges. These have been investigated even less systematically than the aforementioned compounds, and are often used, sometimes in succession, in cases of extreme refractoriness (Robakis & Hirsch, 2006). Several possibilities are reviewed here. In view of the marked heterogeneity of reported information, etiologies, ages, and comedications, it is extremely difficult to evaluate a given method, not to say to compare different strategies among them. Pharmacologic Approaches Isoflurane and desflurane may complete the armamentarium of anesthetics,' and should be employed in a ''close'' environment, in order to prevent intoxication of treating personnel. c-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)A receptor potentiation represents the putative mechanism of action. In an earlier report, isoflurane was used for up to 55 h in nine patients, controlling seizures in all; mortality was, however, 67% (Kofke et al., 1989). More recently, the use of these inhalational anesthetics was described in seven subjects with RSE, for up to 26 days, with an endtidal concentration of 1.2-5%. All patients required vasopressors, and paralytic ileus occurred in three; outcome was fatal in three patients (43%) (Mirsattari et al., 2004). Ketamine, known as an emergency anesthetic because of its favorable hemodynamic profile, is an N-methyl-daspartate (NMDA) antagonist; the interest for its use in RSE derives from animal works showing loss of GABAA efficacy and maintained NMDA sensitivity in prolonged status epilepticus (Mazarati & Wasterlain, 1999). However, to avoid possible neurotoxicity, it appears safer to combine ketamine with GABAergic compounds (Jevtovic-Todorovic et al., 2001; Ubogu et al., 2003), also because of a likely synergistic effect (Martin & Kapur, 2008). There are few reported cases in humans, describing progressive dosages up to 7.5 mg/kg/h for several days (Sheth & Gidal, 1998; Quigg et al., 2002; Pruss & Holtkamp, 2008), with moderate outcomes. Paraldehyde acts through a yet-unidentified mechanism, and appears to be relatively safe in terms of cardiovascular tolerability (Ramsay, 1989; Thulasimani & Ramaswamy, 2002), but because of the risk of crystal formation and its reactivity with plastic, it should be used only as fresh prepared solution in glass devices (Beyenburg et al., 2000). There are virtually no recent reports regarding its use in adults RSE, whereas rectal paraldehyde in children with status epilepticus resistant to benzodiazepines seems less efficacious than intravenous phenytoin (Chin et al., 2008). Etomidate is another anesthetic agent for which the exact mechanism of action is also unknown, which is also relatively favorable regarding cardiovascular side effects, and may be used for rapid sedation. Its use in RSE was reported in eight subjects (Yeoman et al., 1989). After a bolus of 0.3 mg/kg, a drip of up to 7.2 mg/kg/h for up to 12 days was administered, with hypotension occurring in five patients; two patients died. A reversible inhibition of cortisol synthesis represents an important concern, limiting its widespread use and implying a careful hormonal substitution during treatment (Beyenburg et al., 2000). Several nonsedating approaches have been reported. The use of lidocaine in RSE, a class Ib antiarrhythmic agent modulating sodium channels, was reviewed in 1997 (Walker & Slovis, 1997). Initial boluses up to 5 mg/kg and perfusions of up to 6 mg/kg/h have been mentioned; somewhat surprisingly, at times lidocaine seemed to be successful in controlling seizures in patients who were refractory to phenytoin. The aforementioned dosages should not be overshot, in order to keep lidocaine levels under 5 mg/L and avoid seizure induction (Hamano et al., 2006). A recent pediatric retrospective survey on 57 RSE episodes (37 patients) described a response in 36%, and no major adverse events; mortality was not given (Hamano et al., 2006 Verapamil, a calcium-channel blocker, also inhibits P-glycoprotein, a multidrug transporter that may diminish AED availability in the brain (Potschka et al., 2002). Few case reports on its use in humans are available; this medication nevertheless appears relatively safe (under cardiac monitoring) up to dosages of 360 mg/day (Iannetti et al., 2005). Magnesium, a widely used agent for seizures elicited by eclampsia, has also been anecdotally reported in RSE (Fisher et al., 1988; Robakis & Hirsch, 2006), but with scarce results even at serum levels of 14 mm. The rationale may be found in the physiologic blockage of NMDA channels by magnesium ions (Hope & Blumenfeld, 2005). Ketogenic diet has been prescribed for decades, mostly in children, to control refractory seizures. Its use in RSE as ''ultima ratio'' has been occasionally described: three of six children (Francois et al., 2003) and one adult (Bodenant et al., 2008) were responders. This approach displays its effect subacutely over several days to a few weeks. Because ''malignant RSE'' seems at times to be the consequence of immunologic processes (Holtkamp et al., 2005), a course of immunomodulatory treatment is often advocated in this setting, even in the absence of definite autoimmune etiologies (Robakis & Hirsch, 2006); steroids, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), plasma exchanges, or intravenous immunoglobulins may be used alone or in sequential combination. Nonpharmacologic Approaches These strategies are described somewhat less frequently than pharmacologic approaches. Acute implantation of vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) has been reported in RSE (Winston et al., 2001; Patwardhan et al., 2005; De Herdt et al., 2009). Stimulation was usually initiated in the operation room, and intensity progressively adapted over a few days up to 1.25 mA (with various regimens regarding the other parameters), allowing a subacute seizure control; one transitory episode of bradycardia/asystole has been described (De Herdt et al., 2009). Of course, pending identification of a definite seizure focus, resective surgery may also be considered in selected cases (Lhatoo & Alexopoulos, 2007). Low-frequency (0.5 Hz) transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) at 90% of the resting motor threshold has been reported to be successful for about 2 months in a patient with epilepsia partialis continua, but with a weaning effect afterward, implying the need for a repetitive use (Misawa et al., 2005). More recently, TMS was applied in a combination of a short ''priming'' high frequency (up to 100 Hz) and longer runs of low-frequency stimulations (1 Hz) at 90-100% of the motor threshold in seven other patients with simple-partial status, with mixed results (Rotenberg et al., 2009). Paradoxically at first glance, electroconvulsive treatment may be found in cases of extremely resistant RSE. A recent case report illustrates its use in an adult patient with convulsive status, with three sessions (three convulsions each) carried out over 3 days, resulting in a moderate recovery; the mechanism is believed to be related to modification of the synaptic release of neurotransmitters (Cline & Roos, 2007). Therapeutic hypothermia, which is increasingly used in postanoxic patients (Oddo et al., 2008), has been the object of a recent case series in RSE (Corry et al., 2008). Reduction of energy demand, excitatory neurotransmission, and neuroprotective effects may account for the putative mechanism of action. Four adult patients in RSE were cooled to 31_-34_C with an endovascular system for up to 90 h, and then passively rewarmed over 2-50 h. Seizures were controlled in two patients, one of whom died; also one of the other two patients in whom seizures continued subsequently deceased. Possible side effects are related to acid-base and electrolyte disturbances, and coagulation dysfunction including thrombosis, infectious risks, cardiac arrhythmia, and paralytic ileus (Corry et al., 2008; Cereda et al., 2009). Finally, anecdotic evidence suggests that cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-air exchange may induce some transitory benefit in RSE (Kohrmann et al., 2006); although this approach was already in use in the middle of the twentieth century, the mechanism is unknown. Acknowledgment A wide spectrum of pharmacologic (sedating and nonsedating) and nonpharmacologic (surgical, or involving electrical stimulation) regimens might be applied to attempt RSE control. Their use should be considered only after refractoriness to AED or anesthetics displaying a higher level of evidence. Although it seems unlikely that these uncommon and scarcely studied strategies will influence the RSE outcome in a decisive way, some may be interesting in particular settings. However, because the main prognostic determinant in status epilepticus appears to be related to the underlying etiology rather than to the treatment approach (Rossetti et al., 2005, 2008), the safety issue should always represent a paramount concern for the prescribing physician. Conclusion The author confirms that he has read the Journal's position on issues involved in ethical publication and affirms that this paper is consistent with those guidelines.

Patients âgés admis aux urgences suite à une chute: que faire [Older people admitted to the emergency department after a fall: what to do?].

Falls in older people are frequent. Falls may lead to serious injuries and are associated with greater morbidity, mortality, and reduced overall functioning in the older population. Evidences exist regarding the beneficial effects of fall prevention programs. However, these interventions are rarely implemented in our health system. Older people admitted to the emergency department after a fall should get careful attention in order to initiate specific interventions to prevent new falls. This article provides a clinical assessment strategy to evaluate older persons after a fall and proposes an algorithm for discharge planning decision.

Oligoanalgesia in the emergency department: short-term beneficial effects of an education program on acute pain.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Acute pain is the most frequent complaint in emergency department (ED) admissions, but its management is often neglected, placing patients at risk of oligoanalgesia. We evaluate the effect of the implementation of guidelines for pain management in ED patients with pain at admission or anytime during their stay in our ED. METHODS: This prospective pre-post intervention cohort study included data collection both before and after guideline implementation. Consecutive adult patients admitted with acute pain from any cause or with pain at any time after admission were enrolled. The quality of pain management was evaluated according to information in the ED medical records by using a standardized collection form, and its impact on patients was recorded with a questionnaire at discharge. RESULTS: Two hundred forty-nine and 192 patients were included during pre- and postintervention periods. Pain was documented in 61% and 76% of nurse and physician notes, respectively, versus 78% and 85% after the intervention (difference 17%/9%; 95% confidence interval [CI] 8% to 26%/2% to 17%, respectively). Administration of analgesia increased from 40% to 63% (difference 23%; 95% CI 13% to 32%) and of morphine from 10% to 27% (difference 17%; 95% CI 10% to 24%). Mean doses of intravenous morphine increased from 2.4 mg (95% CI 1.9 to 2.9 mg) to 4.6 mg (95% CI 3.9 to 5.3 mg); administration of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and acetaminophen increased as well. There was a greater reduction of visual analogue scale score after intervention: 2.1 cm (95% CI 1.7 to 2.4 cm) versus 2.9 cm (95% CI 2.5 to 3.3 cm), which was associated with improved patient satisfaction. CONCLUSION: Education program and guidelines implementation for pain management lead to improved pain management, analgesia, and patient satisfaction in the ED.

Shared decision making development in Switzerland: room for improvement!

In Switzerland there is a strong movement at a national policy level towards strengthening patient rights and patient involvement in health care decisions. Yet, there is no national programme promoting shared decision making. First decision support tools (prenatal diagnosis and screening) for the counselling process have been developed and implemented. Although Swiss doctors acknowledge that shared decision making is important, hierarchical structures and asymmetric physician-patient relationships are still prevailing. The last years have seen some promising activities regarding the training of medical students and the development of patient support programmes. Swiss direct democracy and the habit of consensual decision making and citizen involvement in general may provide a fertile ground for SDM development in the primary care setting.

Accuracy of prehospital triage of trauma patients by emergency physicians: a retrospective study in western Switzerland.

OBJECTIVE: Accurate identification of major trauma patients in the prehospital setting positively affects survival and resource utilization. Triage algorithms using predictive criteria of injury severity have been identified in paramedic-based prehospital systems. Our rescue system is based on prehospital paramedics and emergency physicians. The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of the prehospital triage performed by physicians and to identify the predictive factors leading to errors of triage.METHODS: Retrospective study of trauma patients triaged by physicians. Prehospital triage was analyzed using criteria defining major trauma victims (MTVs, Injury Severity Score >15, admission to ICU, need for immediate surgery and death within 48 h). Adequate triage was defined as MTVs oriented to the trauma centre or non-MTV (NMTV) oriented to regional hospitals.RESULTS: One thousand six hundred and eighti-five patients (blunt trauma 96%) were included (558 MTV and 1127 NMTV). Triage was adequate in 1455 patients (86.4%). Overtriage occurred in 171 cases (10.1%) and undertriage in 59 cases (3.5%). Sensitivity and specificity was 90 and 85%, respectively, whereas positive predictive value and negative predictive value were 75 and 94%, respectively. Using logistic regression analysis, significant (P<0.05) predictors of undertriage were head or thorax injuries (odds ratio >2.5). Predictors of overtriage were paediatric age group, pedestrian or 2 wheel-vehicle road traffic accidents (odds ratio >2.0).CONCLUSION: Physicians using clinical judgement provide effective prehospital triage of trauma patients. Only a few factors predicting errors in triage process were identified in this study.

Clinical predictors for Legionella in patients presenting with community-acquired pneumonia to the emergency department.

BACKGROUND: Legionella species cause severe forms of pneumonia with high mortality and complication rates. Accurate clinical predictors to assess the likelihood of Legionella community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in patients presenting to the emergency department are lacking. METHODS: We retrospectively compared clinical and laboratory data of 82 consecutive patients with Legionella CAP with 368 consecutive patients with non-Legionella CAP included in two studies at the same institution. RESULTS: In multivariate logistic regression analysis we identified six parameters, namely high body temperature (OR 1.67, p < 0.0001), absence of sputum production (OR 3.67, p < 0.0001), low serum sodium concentrations (OR 0.89, p = 0.011), high levels of lactate dehydrogenase (OR 1.003, p = 0.007) and C-reactive protein (OR 1.006, p < 0.0001) and low platelet counts (OR 0.991, p < 0.0001), as independent predictors of Legionella CAP. Using optimal cut off values of these six parameters, we calculated a diagnostic score for Legionella CAP. The median score was significantly higher in Legionella CAP as compared to patients without Legionella (4 (IQR 3-4) vs 2 (IQR 1-2), p < 0.0001) with a respective odds ratio of 3.34 (95%CI 2.57-4.33, p < 0.0001). Receiver operating characteristics showed a high diagnostic accuracy of this diagnostic score (AUC 0.86 (95%CI 0.81-0.90), which was better as compared to each parameter alone. Of the 191 patients (42%) with a score of 0 or 1 point, only 3% had Legionella pneumonia. Conversely, of the 73 patients (16%) with > or =4 points, 66% of patients had Legionella CAP. CONCLUSION: Six clinical and laboratory parameters embedded in a simple diagnostic score accurately identified patients with Legionella CAP. If validated in future studies, this score might aid in the management of suspected Legionella CAP.

Accès des patients agés aux urgences: evolution démographique et perspectives médico-ethiques [Access of elderly patients in the emergency department: demographic evolution and ethical perspectives].

Due to actual demographic evolution, emergency departments have to face a dramatic increase in admissions of elderly people. The peculiar medical and socio-demographic characteristics of these old patients emphasize the need of specific decision processes and resources allocation. An individual-based approach, related to significant ethical values, should allow better diagnostic and therapeutic attitudes. Such a way to admit, evaluate and treat older patients implies an active collaboration with patients and their relatives, but also with all medical interveners, including in particular primary care physicians.

Prevalence of victims of violence admitted to an emergency department.

OBJECTIVE: To collect data on the consultation frequency and demographic profile of victims of violence attending an emergency department (ED) in Switzerland. METHODS: We undertook screening of all admitted adult patients (>16 years) in the ED of the CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland, over a 1 month period, using a modified version of the Partner Violence Screen questionnaire. Exclusionary criteria were: life threatening injury (National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics score > or =4), or inability to understand or speak French, to give oral informed consent, or to be questioned without a family member or accompanying person being present. Data were collected on history of physical and/or psychological violence during the previous 12 months, the type of violence experienced by the patient, and if violence was the reason for the current consultation. Sociodemographic data were obtained from the registration documents. RESULTS: The final sample consisted of 1602 patients (participation rate of 77.2%), with a refusal rate of 1.1%. Violence during the past 12 months was reported by 11.4% of patients. Of the total sample, 25% stated that violence was the reason for the current consultation; of these, 95% of patients were confirmed as victims of violence by the ED physicians. Patients reporting violence were more likely to be young and separated from their partner. Men were more likely to be victims of public violence and women more commonly victims of domestic violence. CONCLUSIONS: Based on this monthly prevalence rate, we estimate that over 3000 adults affected by violence consult our ED per annum. This underlines the importance of the problem and the need to address it. Health services organisations should establish measures to improve quality of care for victims. Guidelines and educational programmes for nurses and physicians should be developed in order to enhance providers' skills and basic knowledge of all types of violence, how to recognise and interact appropriately with victims, and where to refer these patients for follow up care in their local networks.

Secondary prevention of osteoporotic fractures : room for improvement

Résumé : Introduction : l'ostéoporose est une maladie fréquente, invalidante, sous-diagnostiquée et sous-traitée, alors qu'il existe des évidences cliniques, densitométriques et biologiques de l'efficacité de la prévention secondaire. Matériel et méthode : dans cette étude, nous décrivons les habitudes de prescription de traitements en prévention secondaire dans les 6 mois qui suivent une fracture de fragilité et définissons les catégories de femmes recevant ou non un traitement, selon le type de fractures, les antécédents fracturaires et les données socio-démographiques. Il s'agit d'une étude suisse de cohorte, prospective de 7609 femmes de 70 ans et plus, suivies de 1998 à 2000. Deux groupes de patientes ont été analysés : celles avec un événement fracturaire durant le suivi (3 sous-groupes de fractures ont été considérés fractures vertébrales, fractures du radius distal et fractures de l'humérus proximal) et celles sans fractures durant le suivi (groupe contrôle). La détermination des événements fracturaires et l'instauration d'un traitement s'est faite par l'envoi aux patientes et à leurs médecins traitants d'un questionnaire structuré. Dans cette étude, le but primaire est de décrire les attitudes médicales de prévention secondaire, le but secondaire d'analyser les motifs dé décision thérapeutique (type de fracture, antécédents de fractures), alors que le but tertiaire cherche à caractériser les femmes non traitées. Résultats, discussion : 7354 femmes ont été incluses dans cette étude, 183 dans le groupe fracture et 7171 dans le groupe contrôle. Le suivi moyen a été de 21 mois. L'introduction d'un traitement est restée rare dans chaque catégorie de fracture et a été plus importante pour le sous-groupe avec fracture vertébrale (p<0.001). La seule donnée associée à l'adjonction d'un traitement a été la présence d'un antécédent anamnestique de fracture vertébrale. La description des attitudes thérapeutiques après une fracture de fragilité, a montré que. 44 % des femmes ne reçoivent aucun traitement en prévention secondaire. Seule la fracture vertébrale et les antécédents de fracture vertébrale entraînent une modification de l'attitude thérapeutique des médecins traitants mais de façon encore insuffisante puisque plus de 50 % des femmes avec une fracture de vertèbre n'ont aucun changement dans leur prise en charge. Les femmes non traitées ne différaient pas des autres sur un plan socio-démographique. Le nombre de patientes dans chaque sous-groupe est relativement faible ce qui limite !a puissance statistique de l'analyse. Les données consistent essentiellement en du « selfreporting » ce qui peut limiter la signification de celles-ci. Les résultats sont cependant suffisamment inquiétants pour que de nouvelles campagnes d'information soient lancées auprès des médecins de .premiers recours quant à la nécessité d'instaurer un traitement efficace lors de la survenue d'une fracture clinique ou radiologique chez une femme en post-ménopause.