Understanding informal payments in health care: motivation of health workers in Tanzania

BACKGROUND: There is growing evidence that informal payments for health care are fairly common in many low- and middle-income countries. Informal payments are reported to have a negative consequence on equity and quality of care; it has been suggested, however, that they may contribute to health worker motivation and retention. Given the significance of motivation and retention issues in human resources for health, a better understanding of the relationships between the two phenomena is needed. This study attempts to assess whether and in what ways informal payments occur in Kibaha, Tanzania. Moreover, it aims to assess how informal earnings might help boost health worker motivation and retention. METHODS: Nine focus groups were conducted in three health facilities of different levels in the health system. In total, 64 health workers participated in the focus group discussions (81% female, 19% male) and where possible, focus groups were divided by cadre. All data were processed and analysed by means of the NVivo software package. RESULTS: The use of informal payments in the study area was confirmed by this study. Furthermore, a negative relationship between informal payments and job satisfaction and better motivation is suggested. Participants mentioned that they felt enslaved by patients as a result of being bribed and this resulted in loss of self-esteem. Furthermore, fear of detection was a main demotivating factor. These factors seem to counterbalance the positive effect of financial incentives. Moreover, informal payments were not found to be related to retention of health workers in the public health system. Other factors such as job security seemed to be more relevant for retention. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that the practice of informal payments contributes to the general demotivation of health workers and negatively affects access to health care services and quality of the health system. Policy action is needed that not only provides better financial incentives for individuals but also tackles an environment in which corruption is endemic.

Work motivation and pro-social behavior in the delivery of public services : theoretical and empirical insights

This Ph.D. dissertation seeks to study the work motivation of employees in the delivery of public services. The questioning on work motivation in public services in not new but it becomes central for governments which are now facing unprecedented public debts. The objective of this research is twofold : First, we want to see if the work motivation of employees in public services is a continuum (intrinsic and extrinsic motivations cannot coexist) or a bi-dimensional construct (intrinsic and extrinsic motivations coexist simultaneously). The research in public administration literature has focused on the concept of public service motivation, and considered motivation to be uni-dimensional (Perry and Hondeghem 2008). However, no study has yet tackled both types of motivation, the intrinsic and extrinsic ones, in the same time. This dissertation proposes, in Part I, a theoretical assessment and an empirical test of a global work motivational structure, by using a self-constructed Swiss dataset with employees from three public services, the education sector, the security sector and the public administrative services sector. Our findings suggest that work motivation in public services in not uni-dimensional but bi-dimensional, the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations coexist simultaneously and can be positively correlated (Amabile et al. 1994). Our findings show that intrinsic motivation is as important as extrinsic motivation, thus, the assumption that employees in public services are less attracted by extrinsic rewards is not confirmed for this sample. Other important finding concerns the public service motivation concept, which, as theoretically predicted, represents the major motivational dimension of employees in the delivery of public services. Second, the theory of public service motivation makes the assumption that employees in public services engage in activities that go beyond their self-interest, but never uses this construct as a determinant for their pro-social behavior. In the same time, several studies (Gregg et al. 2011 and Georgellis et al. 2011) bring evidence about the pro-social behavior of employees in public services. However, they do not identify which type of motivation is at the origin of this behavior, they only make the assumption of an intrinsically motivated behavior. We analyze the pro-social behavior of employees in public services and use the public service motivation as determinant of their pro-social behavior. We add other determinants highlighted by the theory of pro-social behavior (Bénabou and Tirole 2006), by Le Grand (2003) and by fit theories (Besley and Ghatak 2005). We test these determinants on Part II and identify for each sector of activity the positive or the negative impact on pro-social behavior of Swiss employees. Contrary to expectations, we find, for this sample, that both intrinsic and extrinsic factors have a positive impact on pro-social behavior, no crowding-out effect is identified in this sample. We confirm the hypothesis of Le Grand (2003) about the positive impact of the opportunity cost on pro-social behavior. Our results suggest a mix of action-oriented altruism and out-put oriented altruism of employees in public services. These results are relevant when designing incentives schemes for employees in the delivery of public services.

Potential role of pathogen signaling in multitrophic plant-microbe interactions involved in disease protection.

Multitrophic interactions mediate the ability of fungal pathogens to cause plant disease and the ability of bacterial antagonists to suppress disease. Antibiotic production by antagonists, which contributes to disease suppression, is known to be modulated by abiotic and host plant environmental conditions. Here, we demonstrate that a pathogen metabolite functions as a negative signal for bacterial antibiotic biosynthesis, which can determine the relative importance of biological control mechanisms available to antagonists and which may also influence fungus-bacterium ecological interactions. We found that production of the polyketide antibiotic 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG) was the primary biocontrol mechanism of Pseudomonas fluorescens strain Q2-87 against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. radicis-lycopersici on the tomato as determined with mutational analysis. In contrast, DAPG was not important for the less-disease-suppressive strain CHA0. This was explained by differential sensitivity of the bacteria to fusaric acid, a pathogen phyto- and mycotoxin that specifically blocked DAPG biosynthesis in strain CHA0 but not in strain Q2-87. In CHA0, hydrogen cyanide, a biocide not repressed by fusaric acid, played a more important role in disease suppression.

Prescriptions de protection incendie en Suisse : étude de leur domaine d'application et de leur respect par l'investigation d'incendies

Avant - Propos Le feu et la protection incendie Quel que soit l'usage d'un bâtiment, chaque étape de la construction est soumise à l'application de normes. Certaines, utilisées par les architectes et les ingénieurs, concernent le gros oeuvre ; en simplifiant leur rôle, elles assurent la solidité et la stabilité de l'immeuble. Si celui-ci est ouvert au public, des aménagements particuliers concernant la sécurité des personnes sont imposés. D'autres comme les prescriptions sur les installations électriques intérieures, précisent la manière de construire une alimentation, le type de matériel utilisable en fonction du courant et de la tension, les sécurités destinées à éviter toute détérioration des circuits et tout risque d'électrocution, etc. Enfin, les prescriptions en matière de protection incendie jouent évidemment un rôle préventif et, dans le domaine judiciaire, servent de références pour qualifier une éventuelle infraction ; elles évitent qu'une source de chaleur installée dans un bâtiment - tel qu'un appareil de chauffage ou des plaques de cuisson - ou susceptible d'apparaître consécutivement à l'usure d'un matériau ou à son vieillissement - disparition d'un isolant thermique, défaut d'étanchéité d'un conduit transportant les gaz chauds de combustion, par exemple - ne communiquent une partie de l'énergie calorifique dégagée à un combustible et ne l'enflamme. Le concept de protection incendie implique d'exposer et de développer les principales notions relatives à l'inflammation d'un matériau, à sa combustion ainsi qu'au transport de l'énergie calorifique. Fréquemment, le milieu dans lequel le générateur de chaleur est installé joue un rôle dans la phase d'allumage de l'incendie. Il est évident que les prescriptions de protection incendie s'appliquent à chaque élément de construction et, par conséquent, doivent être respectées par toute personne participant à la réalisation d'un ouvrage : le chauffagiste, l'électricien, l'installateur sanitaire, le constructeur de cuisine, mais également le maçon qui construit la cheminée, le peintre et le décorateur qui posent des revêtements ou des garnitures inflammables, le menuisier qui utilise le bois pour dissimuler des conduites de fumée, etc. Dès lors, tout sinistre, hormis celui qui est perpétré délibérément, ne peut s'expliquer que par : - le non-respect ou le défaut d'application d'une prescription de protection incendie; - une lacune de la norme qui ignore une source d'échauffement et/ou un mode de transfert de l'énergie calorifique. Le but premier de ce travail consiste à : - analyser les sinistres survenus durant les années 1999 à 2005 dans plusieurs cantons suisses qui ont fait l'objet d'une investigation de la part d'un service technique de la police ou d'un expert ; - examiner les éléments retenus pour expliquer la cause de l'incendie à la norme afin de répondre à la question : « l'application d'une ou de plusieurs directives lors de l'installation ou de l'utilisation du générateur d'énergie calorifique aurait-elle évité à ce dernier de communiquer une partie de la chaleur dégagée à un combustible et à l'enflammer ? » Le second objectif visé est d'apporter une solution à la question précédente : - si la norme existe, c'est un défaut d'installation ou d'utilisation de la source de chaleur qui est à l'origine de l'incendie. Il importe donc de connaître la raison pour laquelle la prescription a été ignorée ou appliquée de manière erronée ou lacunaire; - si la norme n'existe pas, ce sont les prescriptions en matière de protection incendie qui doivent être complétées. Le chapitre suivant abordera ces thèmes en proposant divers postulats destinés à évaluer l'efficacité actuelle du concept de protection incendie en Suisse.

Resigned but satisfied: The negative impact of public service motivation and red tape on work satisfaction

This article examines the relationship between red tape, Public Service Motivation (PSM) and a particular work outcome labelled 'resigned satisfaction'. Using data from a national survey of over 3754 public servants working at the municipal level in Switzerland, this study shows the importance of looking more closely at the concept of work satisfaction and, furthermore, of thoroughly investigating the impact of the different PSM dimensions on work outcomes. Unsurprisingly, research findings show that red tape is the most important predictor of resignation. Nevertheless, when PSM dimensions are analysed separately, results demonstrate that 'commitment to public interest/civic duty' and, to a lesser extent, 'attraction to policy-making' decrease resignation, whereas 'compassion' and 'self-sacrifice' increase it. This study thus highlights some of the negative (or undesirable) effects of PSM that have not been previously addressed in PSM literature.

Targeted nasal vaccination provides antibody-independent protection against Staphylococcus aureus.

Despite showing promise in preclinical models, anti-Staphylococcus aureus vaccines have failed in clinical trials. To date, approaches have focused on neutralizing/opsonizing antibodies; however, vaccines exclusively inducing cellular immunity have not been studied to formally test whether a cellular-only response can protect against infection. We demonstrate that nasal vaccination with targeted nanoparticles loaded with Staphylococcus aureus antigen protects against acute systemic S. aureus infection in the absence of any antigen-specific antibodies. These findings can help inform future developments in staphylococcal vaccine development and studies into the requirements for protective immunity against S. aureus.

Managérialisation et Etat social : satisfaction et motivation d'intervenants et d'intervenantes socio-éducatives dans des contextes plus ou moins managérialisés

La contribution d'Yves Emery et Julien Niklaus étudie les effets du new managerialism dans le secteur social. Les nouveaux outils de pilotage ont profondément transformé les conditions cadres du travail social, de l'organisation des tâches ainsi que de l'action professionnelle. Les auteurs cherchent à savoir dans quelle mesure ces transformations influencent la motivation et la satisfaction au travail des travailleurs et travailleuses sociales. Ils comparent deux institutions présentant des degrés différents de managérialisation et constatent, avec surprise, une motivation supérieure dans les organisations davantage managérialisées, alors que la satisfaction au travail ne présente pas de différences.