Stress reaction of kidney epithelial cells to inorganic solid-core nanoparticles.

A route of accumulation and elimination of therapeutic engineered nanoparticles (NPs) may be the kidney. Therefore, the interactions of different solid-core inorganic NPs (titanium-, silica-, and iron oxide-based NPs) were studied in vitro with the MDCK and LLC-PK epithelial cells as representative cells of the renal epithelia. Following cell exposure to the NPs, observations include cytotoxicity for oleic acid-coated iron oxide NPs, the production of reactive oxygen species for titanium dioxide NPs, and cell depletion of thiols for uncoated iron oxide NPs, whereas for silica NPs an apparent rapid and short-lived increase of thiol levels in both cell lines was observed. Following cell exposure to metallic NPs, the expression of the tranferrin receptor/CD71 was decreased in both cells by iron oxide NPs, but only in MDCK cells by titanium dioxide NPs. The tight association, then subsequent release of NPs by MDCK and LLC-PK kidney epithelial cells, showed that following exposure to the NPs, only MDCK cells could release iron oxide NPs, whereas both cells released titanium dioxide NPs. No transfer of any solid-core NPs across the cell layers was observed.

Influence of early antioxidant supplements on clinical evolution and organ function in critically ill cardiac surgery, major trauma, and subarachnoid hemorrhage patients.

INTRODUCTION: Oxidative stress is involved in the development of secondary tissue damage and organ failure. Micronutrients contributing to the antioxidant (AOX) defense exhibit low plasma levels during critical illness. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of early AOX micronutrients on clinical outcome in intensive care unit (ICU) patients with conditions characterized by oxidative stress. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, single-center trial in patients admitted to a university hospital ICU with organ failure after complicated cardiac surgery, major trauma, or subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stratification by diagnosis was performed before randomization. The intervention was intravenous supplements for 5 days (selenium 270 microg, zinc 30 mg, vitamin C 1.1 g, and vitamin B1 100 mg) with a double-loading dose on days 1 and 2 or placebo. RESULTS: Two hundred patients were included (102 AOX and 98 placebo). While age and gender did not differ, brain injury was more severe in the AOX trauma group (P = 0.019). Organ function endpoints did not differ: incidence of acute kidney failure and sequential organ failure assessment score decrease were similar (-3.2 +/- 3.2 versus -4.2 +/- 2.3 over the course of 5 days). Plasma concentrations of selenium, zinc, and glutathione peroxidase, low on admission, increased significantly to within normal values in the AOX group. C-reactive protein decreased faster in the AOX group (P = 0.039). Infectious complications did not differ. Length of hospital stay did not differ (16.5 versus 20 days), being shorter only in surviving AOX trauma patients (-10 days; P = 0.045). CONCLUSION: The AOX intervention did not reduce early organ dysfunction but significantly reduced the inflammatory response in cardiac surgery and trauma patients, which may prove beneficial in conditions with an intense inflammation. TRIALS REGISTRATION: Clinical Trials.gov RCT Register: NCT00515736.

Long-term exercise stabilizes atherosclerotic plaque in apolipoprotein-E deficient mice

PURPOSE: Exercise is known to reduce cardiovascular mortality. However, the precise mechanisms are still unknown. Because atherosclerotic plaque destabilization and rupture leads to dramatic cardiovascular events, stabilization of plaque might be regarded as an important goal of an exercise preventive therapy. The present study examined the plaque-stabilizing effect of long-term exercise in experimental atherosclerosis using apolipoprotein E-deficient mice (ApoE(-/-)). METHODS: ApoE(-/-) mice were subjected to 6 months of swimming exercise. A group of sedentary animals were used as controls. Morphometry and characteristics of atherosclerotic plaque stability were assessed in aortic sinus by immunohistochemistry. Aortic levels of total protein kinase Akt (protein kinase B), phosphorylated Akt at Ser(473) (p-Akt), total endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS), and phosphorylated eNOS at Ser(1177) (p-eNOS) were assessed by Western blotting. RESULTS: Exercised mice developed a more stable plaque phenotype as shown by decreased macrophage and increased smooth muscle cell content. Protein expressions of Akt, p-Akt, eNOS, and p-eNOS were not modulated by exercise. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term exercise promotes plaque stability in ApoE(-/-) mice. The Akt-mediated eNOS phosphorylation pathway seems not to be the primary molecular mechanism.

Xanthine oxidase inhibitor allopurinol attenuates the development of diabetic cardiomyopathy.

In this study, we investigated the effect of the xanthine oxidase (XO) inhibitor, allopurinol (ALP), on cardiac dysfunction, oxidative-nitrosative stress, apoptosis, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) activity and fibrosis associated with diabetic cardiomyopathy in mice. Diabetes was induced in C57/BL6 mice by injection of streptozotocin. Control and diabetic animals were treated with ALP or placebo. Left ventricular systolic and diastolic functions were measured by pressure-volume system 10 weeks after established diabetes. Myocardial XO, p22(phox), p40(phox), p47(phox), gp91(phox), iNOS, eNOS mRNA and/or protein levels, ROS and nitrotyrosine (NT) formation, caspase3/7 and PARP activity, chromatin fragmentation and various markers of fibrosis (collagen-1, TGF-beta, CTGF, fibronectin) were measured using molecular biology and biochemistry methods or immunohistochemistry. Diabetes was characterized by increased myocardial, liver and serum XO activity (but not expression), increased myocardial ROS generation, p22(phox), p40(phox), p47(phox), p91(phox) mRNA expression, iNOS (but not eNOS) expression, NT generation, caspase 3/7 and PARP activity/expression, chromatin fragmentation and fibrosis (enhanced accumulation of collagen, TGF-beta, CTGF and fibronectin), and declined systolic and diastolic myocardial performance. ALP attenuated the diabetes-induced increased myocardial, liver and serum XO activity, myocardial ROS, NT generation, iNOS expression, apoptosis, PARP activity and fibrosis, which were accompanied by improved systolic (measured by the evaluation of both load-dependent and independent indices of myocardial contractility) and diastolic performance of the hearts of treated diabetic animals. Thus, XO inhibition with ALP improves type 1 diabetes-induced cardiac dysfunction by decreasing oxidative/nitrosative stress and fibrosis, which may have important clinical implications for the treatment and prevention of diabetic cardiomyopathy and vascular dysfunction.

Ecotoxicological approaches to assess the long-term effects of four anticancer drugs and metabolites on Daphnia pulex

The aquatic environment is exposed continuously and increasingly to chemical substances such as pharmaceuticals. These medical compounds are released into the environment after having being consumed and body-excreted by patients. Pharmaceutical residues are synthetic molecules that are not always removed by traditional sewage treatment processes and thus escape degradation. Among pharmaceuticals that escape sewage treatment plants (STPs), the anticancer drugs were measured in STP effluents and natural waters. In the aquatic environment, their long-term effects at low concentrations are sparsely known on non-target species. Tamoxifen is an anticancer drug that is widely prescribed worldwide for the prevention and treatment of hormone receptor-positive breast cancers. Two of its metabolites, i.e., endoxifen and 4-hydroxy- tamoxifen (4OHTam), have high pharmacological potency in vivo and such as tamoxifen, they are excreted via faeces by patients. Tamoxifen was measured in STP effluents and natural waters but, to the best of our knowledge, its metabolites concentrations in waters have never been reported. Imatinib is another and recent anticancer compound that targets specific tumour cells. This pharmaceutical is also body excreted and because of its increasing use in cancer treatment, imatinib may reach the natural water. The effects of tamoxifen and imatinib are unknown upon more than one generation of aquatic species. And the effects of 4OHTam, endoxifen have never been studied in ecotoxicology so far. The aims of this thesis were threefold. First, the sensitivity of D. pulex exposed to tamoxifen, 4OHTam, endoxifen or imatinib was assessed using ecotoxicological experiments. Ecotoxicology is the science that considers the toxic effects of natural or synthetic substances, such as pharmaceuticals, on organisms, populations, community and ecosystem. Acute and multigenerational (2-4 generations) tests were performed on daphnids considering several studied endpoints, such as immobilisation, size, reproduction, viability and intrinsic rate of natural increase. Additional prospective assays were designed to evaluate whether 1) low concentrations of tamoxifen and 4OHTam were able to induce toxic effects when used in combination, and 2) daphnids were able to recover when offspring were withdrawn from solutions carrying the pharmaceutical. Second, the stability of tamoxifen, 4OHTam and endoxifen in incubation medium was evaluated in solution exempted from daphnids. Because the nominal concentrations of tamoxifen, 4OHTam and endoxifen did not correspond to the measured, we provide a predictive method to estimate the concentrations of these chemicals during long-term ecotoxicological tests. Finally, changes in protein expressions were analysed in D. pulex exposed 2 or 7 seven days to tamoxifen using ecotoxicoproteomic experiments with a shot-gun approach inducing a peptide fractionation step. Our results show that tamoxifen, 4OHTam and endoxifen induced adverse effects in D. pulex at environmentally relevant concentrations. At very low concentrations, these molecules displayed unusual and teratogenic effects because morphological abnormalities were observed in offspring, such as thick and short antennas, curved spines, premature neonates and aborted eggs. Tamoxifen was the most toxic compound among the test chemicals, followed by 4OHTam, endoxifen and imatinib. Tamoxifen no-observed effect concentrations (NOECs) that were calculated for size, reproduction and intrinsic rate were below or in the range of the concentrations measured in natural waters, i.e., between 0.12 µg/L and 0.67 µg/L. For instance, the tamoxifen NOECs that were calculated for reproduction were between 0.67 and 0.72 µg/L, whereas the NOEC was < 0.15 µg/L when based on morphological abnormalities. The NOECs of 4OHTam were higher but still in the same order of magnitude as tamoxifen environmental concentrations, with a value of 1.48 µg/L. Endoxifen NOEC for the intrinsic rate of natural increase (r) and the reproduction were 0.4 and 4.3 µg/L, respectively. Daphnids that were withdrawn from tamoxifen and 4OHTam were not able to recover. Also, the reproduction of D. pulex was reduced when the treated animals were exposed to the combination of tamoxifen and 4OHTam while no effects were observed when these chemicals were tested individually at the same concentration. Among the anticancer drugs that were tested during this thesis, imatinib was the less toxic molecule towards D. pulex. No effects on size and reproduction were observed within two generations, except for the first whose reproduction decreased at the highest test concentration, i.e., 626 µg/L. Our results also underline the need to use measured or predicted concentrations instead of the nominal during aquatic experiments, particularly when lipophilic molecules are tested. Indeed, notable differences between nominal (i.e., theoretical) and measured concentrations were found with tamoxifen, 4OHTam and endoxifen at all test concentrations. A cost and time sustainable method was proposed to predict the test exposure levels of these chemicals during long-term experiments. This predictive method was efficient particularly for low concentrations, which corresponded to the test concentrations in multigenerational tests. In the ecotoxicoproteomic experiments a total of 3940 proteins were identified and quantified in D. pulex exposed to tamoxifen. These results are currently the largest dataset from D. pulex that is published and the results of proteomic analyses are available for the scientific community. Among these 3940 proteins, 189 were significantly different from controls. After protein annotation, we assumed that treated daphnids with tamoxifen had shifted cost-energy functions, such as reproduction, to maintain their basic metabolism necessary to survive. This metabolic cost hypothesis was supported by the presence of proteins involved in oxidative stress. Biomarkers for early detection of tamoxifen harmful effects on D. pulex were not discovered but the proteins of the vitellogenin-2 family (E9H8K5) and the ryanodine receptor (E9FTU9) are promising potential biomarkers because their expression was already modified after 2 days of treatment. In this thesis, the effects of tamoxifen, 4OHTam and endoxifen on daphnids raise questions about the potential impact of tamoxifen and 4OHTam in other aquatic ecosystems, and therefore, about metabolites in ecotoxicology. Because the NOECs were environmentally relevant, these results suggest that tamoxifen and 4OHTam may be interesting pharmaceuticals to consider in risk assessment. Our findings also emphasize the importance of performing long-term experiments and of considering multi-endpoints instead of the standard reproductive endpoint. Finally, we open the discussion about the importance to measure test exposures or not, during ecotoxicological studies. -- Les milieux aquatiques sont exposés continuellement à un nombre croissant de substances chimiques, notamment les médicaments issus de la médecine vétérinaire et humaine. Chez les patients, les substances administrées sont utilisées par le corps avant d'être éliminées par l'intermédiaire des excrétas dans le système d'eaux usées de la ville. Ces eaux rejoignent ensuite une station de traitement afin d'y éliminer les déchets. Dans le cas des molécules chimiques, il arrive que les processus de traitement d'eaux usées ne soient pas suffisamment efficaces et que ces molécules ne soient pas dégradées. Elles sont alors libérées dans le milieu aquatique avec les effluents de la station d'épuration. Une fois dans l'environnement, ces résidus de médicaments sont susceptibles d'induire des effets sur la faune et la flore aquatique, dont les conséquences à long terme et à faibles concentrations sont peu connues. Les anticancéreux sont une famille de médicaments qui peuvent échapper aux traitements des stations d'épuration et qui sont retrouvées dans le milieu aquatique naturel. Parmi ces substances, le tamoxifen est une molécule utilisée dans le monde entier pour prévenir et traiter les cancers hormonaux dépendant du sein, notamment. Une fois ingéré, le tamoxifen est transformé par le foie en métabolites dont deux d'entre eux, le 4-hydroxy-tamoxifen (4OHTam) et l'endoxifen, possèdent un affinité pour les récepteurs aux estrogènes et une efficacité sur les cellules tumorales supérieure au tamoxifen lui- même. Tout comme la molécule mère, ces métabolites sont principalement éliminés par l'intermédiaire des fèces. Le tamoxifen a déjà été mesuré dans les effluents de stations d'épuration et dans les eaux naturelles, mais aucune valeur n'a été reportée pour ses métabolites jusqu'à présent. Un autre anticancéreux, également éliminé par voie biliaire et susceptible d'atteindre l'environnement, est l'imatinib. Cette récente molécule a révolutionné le traitement et la survie des patients souffrant de leucémie myéloïde chronique et de tumeur stromales gastrointestinales. Les effets du tamoxifen et de l'imatinib sur plusieurs générations d'organismes aquatiques, tels que les microcrustacés Daphnia, sont inconnus et le 4OHTam et l'endoxifen n'ont même jamais été testés en écotoxicologie. Cette thèse s'est articulée autour de trois objectifs principaux. Premièrement, la sensibilité des D. pulex exposés au tamoxifen, 4OHTam, endoxifen et imatinib a été évaluée par l'intermédiaire de tests aigus et de tests sur deux à quatre générations. La mobilité, la taille, la reproduction, la viabilité et la croissance potentielle de la population ont été relevées au cours de ces expériences. Des tests supplémentaires, à but prospectifs, ont également été réalisés afin d'évaluer 1) la capacité de récupération des daphnies, lorsque leurs descendants ont été placés dans un milieu exempté de tamoxifen ou de 4OHTam, 2) les effets chez les daphnies exposées à une solution contenant de faibles concentration de tamoxifen et de 4OHTam mélangés. Le deuxième objectif a été d'évaluer la stabilité du tamoxifen, 4OHTam et endoxifen dilué dans le milieu des daphnies. Après analyses, les concentrations mesurées ne correspondaient pas aux concentrations nominales (c.-à-d., théoriques) et il a été nécessaire de développer une méthode efficace de prédiction des niveaux d'exposition lors de tests de longue durée réalisés avec ces trois molécules. Finalement, des changements dans l'expression des protéines chez des daphnies exposées au tamoxifen ont été investigués par l'intermédiaire d'expériences écotoxicoprotéomiques avec une approche dite de shot-gun avec une étape de fractionnement des protéines. Les résultats obtenus dans cette thèse montrent que le tamoxifen, le 4OHTam et l'endoxifen induisent des effets indésirables chez les daphnies à des niveaux d'exposition proches ou identiques aux concentrations du tamoxifen mesurées dans l'environnement, c'est-à-dire 0.12 et 0.67 µg/L de tamoxifen. Ces molécules ont induit des effets inhabituels tels que la production de : nouveau-nés anormaux, avec des antennes et des queues déformées, des prématurés et des oeufs avortés. Le tamoxifen fut la molécule la plus toxique pour les D. pulex suivie du 4OHTam, de l'endoxifen et enfin de l'imatinib. Lors des expériences sur plusieurs générations, les concentrations n'ayant statistiquement pas d'effet (c.à.d. NOEC en anglais) sur la taille, la reproduction et la croissance intrinsèque de la population étaient du même ordre de grandeur que les concentrations environnementales du tamoxifen. Par exemple, les NOECs du tamoxifen calculées pour la reproduction étaient de 0.67 et 0.72 µg/L, tandis que celle calculée sur la base des anomalies chez les nouveau-nés était < 0.15 µg/L. Les NOECs du 4OHTam se situaient entre 0.16 et 1.48 µg/L et celles de l'endoxifen pour la croissance intrinsèque de la population, ainsi que pour la reproduction, étaient de 0.4 et 4.3 µg/L, respectivement. Dans l'expérience basée sur la récupération des daphnies, la taille et la reproduction ont diminué bien que la descendance fût placée dans un milieu sans substances chimiques. Les daphnies exposées au mélange de tamoxifen et de 4OHTam ont produit moins de nouveau-nés que les contrôles, alors que ces concentrations n'ont pas induit d'effets lorsque testées individuellement. Finalement, l'imatinib n'a pas montré d'effets sur les deux générations testées. Seule la première génération exposée à la plus haute concentration (626 µg/L) a montré une diminution de la reproduction. Les résultats obtenus lors de l'évaluation de la stabilité du tamoxifen, 4OHTam et endoxifen dans le milieu des daphnies ont souligné l'importance d'utiliser des concentrations mesurées ou prédites en écotoxicologie. En effet, des différences notables entre concentrations nominales et mesurées ont été observées à toutes les concentrations et l'hypothèse d'un phénomène d'adsorption sur le verre des récipients a été posée. De ce fait, il a été nécessaire d'élaborer une méthode prédictive efficace et acceptable, en terme de temps et de coûts. Une régression polynomiale basée sur des concentrations mesurées et nominales a permis de prédire avec efficacité les faibles niveaux d'exposition utilisés lors d'expériences écotoxicologiques à long terme, sur plusieurs générations. Suite aux expériences d'écotoxicoprotéomiques, un total de 3940 protéines ont été identifiées et quantifiées chez des daphnies exposées au tamoxifen. Ce nombre est actuellement la plus large série de données publiées et mises à disposition pour la communauté scientifique. Parmi ces protéines, 189 sont significatives et possiblement reliées à des processus de reproduction et de stress. Sur cette base, nous avons émis l'hypothèse que les individus subissant un stress, lié à l'exposition au tamoxifen, ont utilisé leur énergie de base pour favoriser leur survie plutôt que la reproduction. Enfin, la détermination de bio-marqueurs exprimant des dommages précoces des daphnies exposées au tamoxifen n'a pas abouti en tant que telle, mais des protéines prometteuses, telle que la famille de viellogenin-2 (E9H8K5) et le récepteur à la ryanodine (E9FTU9), ont été exprimées après deux jours d'exposition déjà. Ces protéines pourraient faire l'objet d'investigations écotoxicoprotéomiques futures. Les résultats de cette thèse posent certaines questions quant au risque du tamoxifen, du 4OHTam et de l'endoxifen sur la faune et la flore aquatique et plus particulièrement sur les anticancéreux présents dans l'environnement. Les effets toxiques de ces molécules ont été observés à des concentrations environnementales et sur plusieurs générations. La question de considérer les métabolites, et ainsi les pro-médicaments, en écotoxicologie est soulevée, notamment parce que ces molécules peuvent être plus actives et efficaces que la molécule mère. Les expériences chroniques, sur plusieurs générations sont également à favoriser car elles offrent un meilleur reflet de la réalité environnementale que des essais aigus ou d'une génération. L'utilisation de la protéomique permet d'agrandir les connaissances sur les effets des médicaments à un niveau inférieur de l'organisation biologique et ainsi, de mieux comprendre de potentiels mécanismes d'action ou de déterminer de potentiels biomarqueurs. Finalement, il semble important de discuter de l'opportunité de mesurer les concentrations qui sont testées en écotoxicologie afin de ne pas sous-estimer le risque pour la faune et la flore aquatique.

Proteomic analysis of Intercept-treated platelets.

In the past decades, transfusion medicine has been driven by the quest for increased safety against transfusion-transmitted infections, mainly by better donor selection and by the development of improved serological and nucleic-acid-based screening assays. Recently, pathogen reduction technologies became available and started to be implemented in several countries, with the primary goal to fight against bacterial contamination of blood products, a rare but dramatic event against which there was no definitive measure. Though pathogen reduction technologies represent a quantum leap in transfusion safety, the biomedical efficacy of platelet concentrates (PCs) treated with various pathogen reduction techniques has been recently questioned by clinical studies. Here, a gel-based proteomic analysis of PCs (n=5), Intercept-treated or untreated, from pooled buffy-coat (10 donors per PC) at Days 1, 2 and 8, shows that the Intercept process that is the most widespread pathogen reduction technique to date, has relatively low impact on the proteome of treated platelets: the process induces modifications of DJ-1 protein, glutaredoxin 5, and G(i)alpha 2 protein. As for the impact of storage, chloride intracellular channel protein 4 (CLIC4) and actin increased independently of Intercept treatment during storage. Whereas alteration of the DJ-1 protein and glutaredoxin 5 points out an oxidative stress-associated lesion, modification of G(i)alpha2 directly connects a possible Intercept-associated lesion to haemostatic properties of Intercept-treated platelets. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Integrated omics.

Genetic vulnerability factor for schizophrenia: association with glutamate cysteine ligase modifier gene and abnormal enzyme activity

Background: We previously reported in schizophrenia patients a decreased level of glutathione ([GSH]), the principal non-protein antioxidant and redox regulator, both in cerebrospinal-fluid and prefrontal cortex. To identify possible genetic causation, we studied genes involved in GSH metabolism. Methods: Genotyping: mass spectrometry analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplified DNA fragments purified from peripheral blood. Gene expression: real-time PCR of total RNA isolated from fibroblast cultures derived from skin of patients (DSM-IV) and healthy controls (DIGS). Results: Case-control association study of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) from the GSH key synthesizing enzyme glutamate-cysteine-ligase (GCL) modifier subunit (GCLM) was performed in two populations: Swiss (patients/controls: 40/31) and Danish (349/348). We found a strong association of SNP rs2301022 in GCLM gene (Danish: c2=3.2; P=0.001 after correction for multiple testing). Evidence for GCLM as a risk factor was confirmed in linkage study of NIMH families. Moreover, we observed a decrease in GCLM mRNA levels in patient fibroblasts, consistently with the association study. Interestingly, Dalton and collaborators reported in GCLM knock-out mice an increased feedback inhibition of GCL activity, resulting in 60% decrease of brain [GSH], a situation analogous to patients. These mice also exhibited an increased sensitivity to oxidative stress. Similarly, under oxidative stress conditions, GCL enzymatic activity was also decreased in patient fibroblasts. Conclusions: These results at the genetic and functional levels, combined with observations that GSH deficient models reveal morphological, electrophysiological, and behavioral anomalies analogous to those observed in patients, suggest that GCLM allelic variant is a vulnerability factor for schizophrenia.

Genome-wide search reveals a novel GacA-regulated small RNA in Pseudomonas species.

BACKGROUND: Small RNAs (sRNAs) are widespread among bacteria and have diverse regulatory roles. Most of these sRNAs have been discovered by a combination of computational and experimental methods. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a ubiquitous Gram-negative bacterium and opportunistic human pathogen, the GacS/GacA two-component system positively controls the transcription of two sRNAs (RsmY, RsmZ), which are crucial for the expression of genes involved in virulence. In the biocontrol bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens CHA0, three GacA-controlled sRNAs (RsmX, RsmY, RsmZ) regulate the response to oxidative stress and the expression of extracellular products including biocontrol factors. RsmX, RsmY and RsmZ contain multiple unpaired GGA motifs and control the expression of target mRNAs at the translational level, by sequestration of translational repressor proteins of the RsmA family. RESULTS: A combined computational and experimental approach enabled us to identify 14 intergenic regions encoding sRNAs in P. aeruginosa. Eight of these regions encode newly identified sRNAs. The intergenic region 1698 was found to specify a novel GacA-controlled sRNA termed RgsA. GacA regulation appeared to be indirect. In P. fluorescens CHA0, an RgsA homolog was also expressed under positive GacA control. This 120-nt sRNA contained a single GGA motif and, unlike RsmX, RsmY and RsmZ, was unable to derepress translation of the hcnA gene (involved in the biosynthesis of the biocontrol factor hydrogen cyanide), but contributed to the bacterium's resistance to hydrogen peroxide. In both P. aeruginosa and P. fluorescens the stress sigma factor RpoS was essential for RgsA expression. CONCLUSION: The discovery of an additional sRNA expressed under GacA control in two Pseudomonas species highlights the complexity of this global regulatory system and suggests that the mode of action of GacA control may be more elaborate than previously suspected. Our results also confirm that several GGA motifs are required in an sRNA for sequestration of the RsmA protein.

Adipokines as uremic toxins.

The adipose tissue has pleiotropic functions far beyond the mere storage of energy, and it secretes a number of hormones and cytokines, called adipokines, which have biological effects that impact heath and disease. Adipokines are markedly elevated in the plasma of uremic patients, mainly due to decreased renal excretion. They have pluripotent signaling effects on inflammation/oxidative stress (leptin, adiponectin, resistin), protein-energy wasting (leptin, adiponectin), insulin signaling (adiponectin, leptin, visfatin), endothelial dysfunction (visfatin), and vascular damage (adiponectin, leptin, resistin), which are prevalent in uremic patients. Obesity superimposed to uremia may further aggravate hyperadipokinemia, with the exception of adiponectinemia, which is mitigated by adiposity. Among adipokines and until more data become available, only leptin may be considered as a full uremic toxin owing to adverse effects on protein-energy wasting, cardiovascular damage, inflammation, and the immune system, which have been documented both clinically and experimentally. Resistin and visfatin display some features of uremic toxins, but more data are needed to consider these adipokines as true uremic toxins. In contrast, high levels of adiponectin and chemerin seen in uremia appear to be beneficial. Further research is needed to investigate whether selective removal of leptin, resistin, and visfatin and increments of adiponectin and chemerin levels may have clinical relevance in uremic patients.

Cellular distribution of Hsp70 expression in rat skeletal muscles. Effects of moderate exercise training and chronic hypoxia.

Rat hindlimb muscles constitutively express the inducible heat shock protein 72 (Hsp70), apparently in proportion to the slow myosin content. Since it remains controversial whether chronic Hsp70 expression reflects the overimposed stress, we investigated Hsp70 cellular distribution in fast muscles of the posterior rat hindlimb after (1) mild exercise training (up to 30 m/min treadmill run for 1 h/day), which induces a remodeling in fast fiber composition, or (2) prolonged exposure to normobaric hypoxia (10%O(2)), which does not affect fiber-type composition. Both conditions increased significantly protein Hsp70 levels in the skeletal muscle. Immunohistochemistry showed the labeling for Hsp70 in subsets of both slow/type 1 and fast/type 2A myofibers of control, sedentary, and normoxic rats. Endurance training increased about threefold the percentage of Hsp70-positive myofibers (P < 0.001), and changed the distribution of Hsp70 immunoreactivity, which involved a larger subset of both type 2A and intermediate type 2A/2X myofibers (P < 0.001) and vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypoxia induced Hsp70 immunoreactivity in smooth muscle cells of veins and did not increase the percentage of Hsp70-positive myofibers; however, sustained exposure to hypoxia affected the distribution of Hsp70 immunoreactivity, which appeared detectable in a very small subset of type 2A fibers, whereas it concentrated in type 1 myofibers (P < 0.05) together with the labeling for heme-oxygenase isoform 1, a marker of oxidative stress. Therefore, the chronic induction of Hsp70 expression in rat skeletal muscles is not obligatory related to the slow fiber phenotype but reveals the occurrence of a stress response.

The anti-apoptotic role of PPARbeta contributes to efficient skin wound healing.

PPARalpha and PPARbeta are expressed in the mouse epidermis during fetal development, but their expression progressively disappears after birth. However, the expression of PPARbeta is reactivated in adult mice upon proliferative stimuli, such as cutaneous injury. We show here that PPARbeta protects keratinocytes from growth factor deprivation, anoikis and TNF-alpha-induced apoptosis, by modulating both early and late apoptotic events via the Akt1 signaling pathway and DNA fragmentation, respectively. The control mechanisms involve direct transcriptional upregulation of ILK, PDK1, and ICAD-L. In accordance with the anti-apoptotic role of PPARbeta observed in vitro, the balance between proliferation and apoptosis is altered in the epidermis of wounded PPARbeta mutant mice, with increased keratinocyte proliferation and apoptosis. In addition, primary keratinocytes deleted for PPARbeta show defects in both cell-matrix and cell-cell contacts, and impaired cell migration. Together, these results suggest that the delayed wound closure observed in PPARbeta mutant mice involves the alteration of several key processes. Finally, comparison of PPARbeta and Akt1 knock-out mice reveals many similarities, and suggests that the ability of PPARbeta to modulate the Akt1 pathway has significant impact during skin wound healing.

Oxidation of proteins: Basic principles and perspectives for blood proteomics.

Protein oxidation mechanisms result in a wide array of modifications, from backbone cleavage or protein crosslinking to more subtle modifications such as side chain oxidations. Protein oxidation occurs as part of normal regulatory processes, as a defence mechanism against oxidative stress, or as a deleterious processes when antioxidant defences are overcome. Because blood is continually exposed to reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, blood proteomics should inherently adopt redox proteomic strategies. In this review, we recall the biochemical basis of protein oxidation, review the proteomic methodologies applied to analyse redox modifications, and highlight some physiological and in vitro responses to oxidative stress of various blood components.

Pathophysiological mechanisms of catecholamine and cocaine-mediated cardiotoxicity.

Overactivation of the sympatho-adrenergic system is an essential mechanism providing short-term adaptation to the stressful conditions of critical illnesses. In the same way, the administration of exogenous catecholamines is mandatory to support the failing circulation in acutely ill patients. In contrast to these short-term benefits, prolonged adrenergic stress is detrimental to the cardiovascular system by initiating a series of adverse effects triggering significant cardiotoxicity, whose pathophysiological mechanisms are complex and only partially elucidated. In addition to the development of myocardial oxygen supply/demand imbalance induced by the sustained activation of adrenergic receptors, catecholamines can damage cardiomyocytes by fostering mitochondrial dysfunction, via two main mechanisms. The first one is calcium overload, consecutive to β-adrenergic receptor-mediated activation of protein kinase A and subsequent phosphorylation of multiple Ca(2+)-cycling proteins. The second one is oxidative stress, primarily related to the transformation of catecholamines into "aminochromes," which undergo redox cycling in mitochondria to generate copious amounts of oxygen-derived free radicals. In turn, calcium overload and oxidative stress promote mitochondrial permeability transition and cardiomyocyte cell death, both via the apoptotic and necrotic pathways. Comparable mechanisms of myocardial toxicity, including marked oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, have been reported with the use of cocaine, a common recreational drug with potent sympathomimetic activity. The aim of the current review is to present in detail the pathophysiological processes underlying the development of catecholamine and cocaine-induced cardiomyopathy, as such conditions may be frequently encountered in the clinical practice of cardiologists and ICU specialists.

Parametrial adipose tissue and metabolic dysfunctions induced by fructose-rich diet in normal and neonatal-androgenized adult female rats.

Hyperandrogenemia predisposes an organism toward developing impaired insulin sensitivity. The aim of our study was to evaluate endocrine and metabolic effects during early allostasis induced by a fructose-rich diet (FRD) in normal (control; CT) and neonatal-androgenized (testosterone propionate; TP) female adult rats. CT and TP rats were fed either a normal diet (ND) or an FRD for 3 weeks immediately before the day of study, which was at age 100 days. Energy intake, body weight (BW), parametrial (PM) fat characteristics, and endocrine/metabolic biomarkers were then evaluated. Daily energy intake was similar in CT and TP rats regardless of the differences in diet. When compared with CT-ND rats, the TP-ND rats were heavier, had larger PM fat, and were characterized by basal hypoadiponectinemia and enhanced plasma levels of non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), and leptin. FRD-fed CT rats, when compared with CT-ND rats, had high plasma levels of NEFA, triglyceride (TG), PAI-1, leptin, and adiponectin. The TP-FRD rats, when compared with TP-ND rats, displayed enhanced leptinemia and triglyceridemia, and were hyperinsulinemic, with glucose intolerance. The PM fat taken from TP rats displayed increase in the size of adipocytes, decrease in adiponectin (protein/gene), and a greater abundance of the leptin gene. PM adipocyte response to insulin was impaired in CT-FRD, TP-ND, and TP-FRD rats. A very short duration of isocaloric FRD intake in TP rats induced severe metabolic dysfunction at the reproductive age. Our study supports the hypothesis that the early-androgenized female rat phenotype is highly susceptible to developing endocrine/metabolic dysfunction. In turn, these abnormalities enhance the risk of metabolic syndrome, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

A role for the transcriptional repressor ICER in the molecular pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes

AbstractType 2 diabetes (T2D) is a metabolic disease which affects more than 200 millions people worldwide. The progression of this affection reaches nowadays epidemic proportions, owing to the constant augmentation in the frequency of overweight, obesity and sedentary. The pathogenesis of T2D is characterized by reduction in the action of insulin on its target tissues - an alteration referred as insulin resistance - and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. This latter deterioration is defined by impairment in insulin biosynthesis and secretion, and a loss of β-cell mass by apoptosis. Environmental factors related to T2D, such as chronic elevation in glucose and free fatty acids levels, inflammatory cytokines and pro-atherogenic oxidized low- density lipoproteins (LDL), contribute to the loss of pancreatic β-cell function.In this study, we have demonstrated that the transcription factor Inducible Cyclic AMP Early Repressor (ICER) participates to the progression of both β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance. The expression of this factor is driven by an alternative promoter and ICER protein represents therefore a truncated product of the Cyclic AMP Response Element Modulator (CREM) family which lacks transactivation domain. Consequently, the transcription factor ICER acts as a passive repressor which reduces expression of genes controlled by the cyclic AMP and Cyclic AMP Response Element Binding protein (CREB) pathway.In insulin-secreting cells, the accumulation of reactive oxygen species caused by environmental factors and notably oxidized LDL - a process known as oxidative stress - induces the transcription factor ICER. This transcriptional repressor hampers the secretory capacity of β-cells by silencing key genes of the exocytotic machinery. In addition, the factor ICER reduces the expression of the scaffold protein Islet Brain 1 (IB 1 ), thereby favouring the activation of the c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) pathway. This triggering alters in turn insulin biosynthesis and survival capacities of pancreatic β-cells.In the adipose tissue of mice and human subjects suffering from obesity, the transcription factor ICER contributes to the alteration in insulin action. The loss in ICER protein in these tissues induces a constant activation of the CREB pathway and the subsequent expression of the Activating Transcription Factor 3 (ATF3). In turn, this repressor reduces the transcript levels of the glucose transporter GLUT4 and the insulin-sensitizer peptide adiponectin, thereby contributing to the diminution in insulin action.In conclusion, these data shed light on the important role of the transcriptional repressor ICER in the pathogenesis of T2D, which contributes to both alteration in β-cell function and aggravation of insulin resistance. Consequently, a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms responsible for the alterations in ICER levels is required and could lead to develop new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of T2D.RésuméLe diabète de type 2 (DT2) est une maladie métabolique qui affecte plus de 200 millions de personnes dans le monde. La progression de cette affection atteint aujourd'hui des proportions épidémiques imputables à l'augmentation rapide dans les fréquences du surpoids, de l'obésité et de la sédentarité. La pathogenèse du DT2 se caractérise par une diminution de l'action de l'insuline sur ses tissus cibles - un processus nommé insulino-résistance - ainsi qu'une dysfonction des cellules β pancréatiques sécrétrices d'insuline. Cette dernière détérioration se définit par une réduction de la capacité de synthèse et de sécrétion de l'insuline et mène finalement à une perte de la masse de cellules β par apoptose. Des facteurs environnementaux fréquemment associés au DT2, tels l'élévation chronique des taux plasmatiques de glucose et d'acides gras libres, les cytokines pro-inflammatoires et les lipoprotéines de faible densité (LDL) oxydées, contribuent à la perte de fonction des cellules β pancréatiques.Dans cette étude, nous avons démontré que le facteur de transcription « Inducible Cyclic AMP Early Repressor » (ICER) participe à la progression de la dysfonction des cellules β pancréatiques et au développement de Pinsulino-résistance. Son expression étant gouvernée par un promoteur alternatif, la protéine d'ICER représente un produit tronqué de la famille des «Cyclic AMP Response Element Modulator » (CREM), sans domaine de transactivation. Par conséquent, le facteur ICER agit comme un répresseur passif qui réduit l'expression des gènes contrôlés par la voie de l'AMP cyclique et des « Cyclic AMP Response Element Binding protein » (CREB).Dans les cellules sécrétrices d'insuline, l'accumulation de radicaux d'oxygène libres, soutenue par les facteurs environnementaux et notamment les LDL oxydées - un processus appelé stress oxydatif- induit de manière ininterrompue le facteur de transcription ICER. Ainsi activé, ce répresseur transcriptionnel altère la capacité sécrétoire des cellules β en bloquant l'expression de gènes clés de la machinerie d'exocytose. En outre, le facteur ICER favorise l'activation de la cascade de signalisation « c-Jun N- terminal Kinase » (JNK) en réduisant l'expression de la protéine « Islet Brain 1 » (IB1), altérant ainsi les fonctions de biosynthèse de l'insuline et de survie des cellules β pancréatiques.Dans le tissu adipeux des souris et des sujets humains souffrant d'obésité, le facteur de transcription ICER contribue à l'altération de la réponse à l'insuline. La disparition de la protéine ICER dans ces tissus entraîne une activation persistante de la voie de signalisation des CREB et une induction du facteur de transcription « Activating Transcription Factor 3 » (ATF3). A son tour, le répresseur ATF3 inhibe l'expression du transporteur de glucose GLUT4 et du peptide adipocytaire insulino-sensibilisateur adiponectine, contribuant ainsi à la diminution de l'action de l'insuline en conditions d'obésité.En conclusion, à la lumière de ces résultats, le répresseur transcriptionnel ICER apparaît comme un facteur important dans la pathogenèse du DT2, en participant à la perte de fonction des cellules β pancréatiques et à l'aggravation de l'insulino-résistance. Par conséquent, l'étude des mécanismes moléculaires responsables de l'altération des niveaux du facteur ICER pourrait permettre le développement de nouvelles stratégies de traitement du DT2.Résumé didactiqueL'énergie nécessaire au bon fonctionnement de l'organisme est fournie par l'alimentation, notamment sous forme de sucres (glucides). Ceux-ci sont dégradés en glucose, lequel sera distribué aux différents organes par la circulation sanguine. Après un repas, le niveau de glucose sanguin, nommé glycémie, s'élève et favorise la sécrétion d'une hormone appelée insuline par les cellules β du pancréas. L'insuline permet, à son tour, aux organes, tels le foie, les muscles et le tissu adipeux de capter et d'utiliser le glucose ; la glycémie retrouve ainsi son niveau basai.Le diabète de type 2 (DT2) est une maladie métabolique qui affecte plus de 200 millions de personnes dans le monde. Le développement de cette affection est causée par deux processus pathologiques. D'une part, les quantités d'insuline secrétée par les cellules β pancréatiques, ainsi que la survie de ces cellules sont réduites, un phénomène connu sous le nom de dysfonction des cellules β. D'autre part, la sensibilité des tissus à l'insuline se trouve diminuée. Cette dernière altération, l'insulino-résistance, empêche le transport et l'utilisation du glucose par les tissus et mène à une accumulation de ce sucre dans le sang. Cette stagnation de glucose dans le compartiment sanguin est appelée hyperglycémie et favorise l'apparition des complications secondaires du diabète, telles que les maladies cardiovasculaires, l'insuffisance rénale, la cécité et la perte de sensibilité des extrémités.Dans cette étude, nous avons démontré que le facteur ICER qui contrôle spécifiquement l'expression de certains gènes, contribue non seulement à la dysfonction des cellules β, mais aussi au développement de l'insulino-résistance. En effet, dans les cellules β pancréatiques en conditions diabétiques, l'activation du facteur ICER altère la capacité de synthèse et de sécrétion d'insuline et réduit la survie ces cellules.Dans le tissu adipeux des souris et des sujets humains souffrant d'obésité, le facteur ICER contribue à la perte de sensibilité à l'insuline. La disparition d'ICER altère l'expression de la protéine qui capte le glucose, le transoprteur GLUT4, et l'hormone adipocytaire favorisant la sensibilité à l'insuline, nommée adiponectine. Ainsi, la perte d'ICER participe à la réduction de la captation de glucose par le tissue adipeux et au développement de l'insulino-résistance au cours de l'obésité.En conclusion, à la lumière de ces résultats, le facteur ICER apparaît comme un contributeur important à la progression du DT2, en soutenant la dysfonction des cellules β pancréatiques et l'aggravation de l'insulino-résistance. Par conséquent, l'étude des mécanismes responsables de la dérégulation du facteur ICER pourrait permettre le développement de nouvelles stratégies de traitement du DT2.