Regulation of Rat and Human T-cell Immune Response by Pharmacologically Modified Dendritic Cells.

BACKGROUND: The central function of dendritic cells (DC) in inducing and preventing immune responses makes them ideal therapeutic targets for the induction of immunologic tolerance. In a rat in vivo model, we showed that dexamethasone-treated DC (Dex-DC) induced indirect pathway-mediated regulation and that CD4+CD25+ T cells were involved in the observed effects. The aim of the present study was to investigate the mechanisms underlying the acquired immunoregulatory properties of Dex-DC in the rat and human experimental systems. METHODS: After treatment with dexamethasone (Dex), the immunogenicity of Dex-DC was analyzed in T-cell proliferation and two-step hyporesponsiveness induction assays. After carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester labeling, CD4+CD25+ regulatory T-cell expansion was analyzed by flow cytometry, and cytokine secretion was measured by ELISA. RESULTS: In this study, we demonstrate in vitro that rat Dex-DC induced selective expansion of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells, which were responsible for alloantigen-specific hyporesponsiveness. The induction of regulatory T-cell division by rat Dex-DC was due to secretion of interleukin (IL)-2 by DC. Similarly, in human studies, monocyte-derived Dex-DC were also poorly immunogenic, were able to induce T-cell anergy in vitro, and expand a population of T cells with regulatory functions. This was accompanied by a change in the cytokine profile in DC and T cells in favor of IL-10. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that Dex-DC induced tolerance by different mechanisms in the two systems studied. Both rat and human Dex-DC were able to induce and expand regulatory T cells, which occurred in an IL-2 dependent manner in the rat system.

Ochratoxin A at nanomolar concentration perturbs the homeostasis of neural stem cells in highly differentiated but not in immature three-dimensional brain cell cultures.

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a fungal contaminant of basic food commodities, is known to be highly cytotoxic, but the pathways underlying adverse effects at subcytotoxic concentrations remain to be elucidated. Recent reports indicate that OTA affects cell cycle regulation. Therefore, 3D brain cell cultures were used to study OTA effects on mitotically active neural stem/progenitor cells, comparing highly differentiated cultures with their immature counterparts. Changes in the rate of DNA synthesis were related to early changes in the mRNA expression of neural stem/progenitor cell markers. OTA at 10nM, a concentration below the cytotoxic level, was ineffective in immature cultures, whereas in mature cultures it significantly decreased the rate of DNA synthesis together with the mRNA expression of key transcriptional regulators such as Sox2, Mash1, Hes5, and Gli1; the cell cycle activator cyclin D2; the phenotypic markers nestin, doublecortin, and PDGFRα. These effects were largely prevented by Sonic hedgehog (Shh) peptide (500ngml(-1)) administration, indicating that OTA impaired the Shh pathway and the Sox2 regulatory transcription factor critical for stem cell self-renewal. Similar adverse effects of OTA in vivo might perturb the regulation of stem cell proliferation in the adult brain and in other organs exhibiting homeostatic and/or regenerative cell proliferation.

Homeostatic proliferation and survival of naïve and memory T cells.

The immune system relies on homeostatic mechanisms in order to adapt to the changing requirements encountered during steady-state existence and activation by antigen. For T cells, this involves maintenance of a diverse repertoire of naïve cells, rapid elimination of effector cells after pathogen clearance, and long-term survival of memory cells. The reduction of T-cell counts by either cytotoxic drugs, irradiation, or certain viruses is known to lead to lymphopenia-induced proliferation and restoration of normal T-cell levels. Such expansion is governed by the interaction of TCR with self-peptide/MHC (p/MHC) molecules plus contact with cytokines, especially IL-7. These same ligands, i.e. p/MHC molecules and IL-7, maintain naïve T lymphocytes as resting cells under steady-state T-cell-sufficient conditions. Unlike naïve cells, typical "central" memory T cells rely on a combination of IL-7 and IL-15 for their survival in interphase and for occasional cell division without requiring signals from p/MHC molecules. Other memory T-cell subsets are less quiescent and include naturally occurring activated memory-phenotype cells, memory cells generated during chronic viral infections, and effector memory cells. These subsets of activated memory cells differ from central memory T cells in their requirements for homeostatic proliferation and survival. Thus, the factors controlling T-cell homeostasis can be seen to vary considerably from one subset to another as described in detail in this review.

Cell cycle regulation of mitochondrial function.

Specific cellular functions, such as proliferation, survival, growth, or senescence, require a particular adaptive metabolic response, which is fine tuned by members of the cell cycle regulators families. Currently, proteins such as cyclins, CDKs, or E2Fs are being studied in the context of cell proliferation and survival, cell signaling, cell cycle regulation, and cancer. We show in this review that cellular, animal and molecular studies provided enough evidence to prove that these factors play, in addition, crucial roles in the control of mitochondrial function; finally resulting in a dual proliferative and metabolic response.

Contribution of Intronic miR-338-3p and Its Hosting Gene AATK to Compensatory β-Cell Mass Expansion.

The elucidation of the mechanisms directing β-cell mass regeneration and maintenance is of interest, because the deficit of β-cell mass contributes to diabetes onset and progression. We previously found that the level of the microRNA (miRNA) miR-338-3p is decreased in pancreatic islets from rodent models displaying insulin resistance and compensatory β-cell mass expansion, including pregnant rats, diet-induced obese mice, and db/db mice. Transfection of rat islet cells with oligonucleotides that specifically block miR-338-3p activity increased the fraction of proliferating β-cells in vitro and promoted survival under proapoptotic conditions without affecting the capacity of β-cells to release insulin in response to glucose. Here, we evaluated the role of miR-338-3p in vivo by injecting mice with an adeno-associated viral vector permitting specific sequestration of this miRNA in β-cells. We found that the adeno-associated viral construct increased the fraction of proliferating β-cells confirming the data obtained in vitro. miR-338-3p is generated from an intron of the gene coding for apoptosis-associated tyrosine kinase (AATK). Similarly to miR-338-3p, we found that AATK is down-regulated in rat and human islets and INS832/13 β-cells in the presence of the cAMP-raising agents exendin-4, estradiol, and a G-protein-coupled Receptor 30 agonist. Moreover, AATK expression is reduced in islets of insulin resistant animal models and selective silencing of AATK in INS832/13 cells by RNA interference promoted β-cell proliferation. The results point to a coordinated reduction of miR-338-3p and AATK under insulin resistance conditions and provide evidence for a cooperative action of the miRNA and its hosting gene in compensatory β-cell mass expansion.

The Human Mesenchymal Stromal Cell-Derived Osteocyte Capacity to Modulate Dendritic Cell Functions Is Strictly Dependent on the Culture System.

In vitro differentiation of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) into osteocytes (human differentiated osteogenic cells, hDOC) before implantation has been proposed to optimize bone regeneration. However, a deep characterization of the immunological properties of DOC, including their effect on dendritic cell (DC) function, is not available. DOC can be used either as cellular suspension (detached, Det-DOC) or as adherent cells implanted on scaffolds (adherent, Adh-DOC). By mimicking in vitro these two different routes of administration, we show that both Det-DOC and Adh-DOC can modulate DC functions. Specifically, the weak downregulation of CD80 and CD86 caused by Det-DOC on DC surface results in a weak modulation of DC functions, which indeed retain a high capacity to induce T-cell proliferation and to generate CD4(+)CD25(+)Foxp3(+) T cells. Moreover, Det-DOC enhance the DC capacity to differentiate CD4(+)CD161(+)CD196(+) Th17-cells by upregulating IL-6 secretion. Conversely, Adh-DOC strongly suppress DC functions by a profound downregulation of CD80 and CD86 on DC as well as by the inhibition of TGF-β production. In conclusion, we demonstrate that different types of DOC cell preparation may have a different impact on the modulation of the host immune system. This finding may have relevant implications for the design of cell-based tissue-engineering strategies.

Different Effects of BORIS/CTCFL on Stemness Gene Expression, Sphere Formation and Cell Survival in Epithelial Cancer Stem Cells.

Cancer stem cells are cancer cells characterized by stem cell properties and represent a small population of tumor cells that drives tumor development, progression, metastasis and drug resistance. To date, the molecular mechanisms that generate and regulate cancer stem cells are not well defined. BORIS (Brother of Regulator of Imprinted Sites) or CTCFL (CTCF-like) is a DNA-binding protein that is expressed in normal tissues only in germ cells and is re-activated in tumors. Recent evidences have highlighted the correlation of BORIS/CTCFL expression with poor overall survival of different cancer patients. We have previously shown an association of BORIS-expressing cells with stemness gene expression in embryonic cancer cells. Here, we studied the role of BORIS in epithelial tumor cells. Using BORIS-molecular beacon that was already validated, we were able to show the presence of BORIS mRNA in cancer stem cell-enriched populations (side population and spheres) of cervical, colon and breast tumor cells. BORIS silencing studies showed a decrease of sphere formation capacity in breast and colon tumor cells. Importantly, BORIS-silencing led to down-regulation of hTERT, stem cell (NANOG, OCT4, SOX2 and BMI1) and cancer stem cell markers (ABCG2, CD44 and ALDH1) genes. Conversely, BORIS-induction led to up-regulation of the same genes. These phenotypes were observed in cervical, colon and invasive breast tumor cells. However, a completely different behavior was observed in the non-invasive breast tumor cells (MCF7). Indeed, these cells acquired an epithelial mesenchymal transition phenotype after BORIS silencing. Our results demonstrate that BORIS is associated with cancer stem cell-enriched populations of several epithelial tumor cells and the different phenotypes depend on the origin of tumor cells.

Autocrine Action of IGF2 Regulates Adult β-Cell Mass and Function.

Insulin-like growth factor 2 (IGF2), produced and secreted by adult β-cells, functions as an autocrine activator of the β-cell insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor signaling pathway. Whether this autocrine activity of IGF2 plays a physiological role in β-cell and whole-body physiology is not known. Here, we studied mice with β-cell-specific inactivation of Igf2 (βIGF2KO mice) and assessed β-cell mass and function in aging, pregnancy, and acute induction of insulin resistance. We showed that glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) was markedly reduced in old female βIGF2KO mice; glucose tolerance was, however, normal because of increased insulin sensitivity. While on a high-fat diet, both male and female βIGF2KO mice displayed lower GSIS compared with control mice, but reduced β-cell mass was observed only in female βIGF2KO mice. During pregnancy, there was no increase in β-cell proliferation and mass in βIGF2KO mice. Finally, β-cell mass expansion in response to acute induction of insulin resistance was lower in βIGF2KO mice than in control mice. Thus, the autocrine action of IGF2 regulates adult β-cell mass and function to preserve in vivo GSIS in aging and to adapt β-cell mass in response to metabolic stress, pregnancy hormones, and acute induction of insulin resistance.

Role of microRNAs in the age-associated decline of pancreatic beta cell function in rat islets.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Ageing can lead to reduced insulin sensitivity and loss of pancreatic beta cell function, predisposing individuals to the development of diabetes. The aim of this study was to assess the contribution of microRNAs (miRNAs) to age-associated beta cell dysfunction. METHODS: The global mRNA and miRNA profiles of 3- and 12-month-old rat islets were collected by microarray. The functional impact of age-associated differences in miRNA expression was investigated by mimicking the observed changes in primary beta cells from young animals. RESULTS: Beta cells from 12-month-old rats retained normal insulin content and secretion, but failed to proliferate in response to mitotic stimuli. The islets of these animals displayed modifications at the level of several miRNAs, including upregulation of miR-34a, miR-124a and miR-383, and downregulation of miR-130b and miR-181a. Computational analysis of the transcriptomic modifications observed in the islets of 12-month-old rats revealed that the differentially expressed genes were enriched for miR-34a and miR-181a targets. Indeed, the induction of miR-34a and reduction of miR-181a in the islets of young animals mimicked the impaired beta cell proliferation observed in old animals. mRNA coding for alpha-type platelet-derived growth factor receptor, which is critical for compensatory beta cell mass expansion, is directly inhibited by miR34a and is likely to be at least partly responsible for the effects of this miRNA. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Changes in the level of specific miRNAs that occur during ageing affect the proliferative capacity of beta cells. This might reduce their ability to expand under conditions of increased insulin demand, favouring the development of type 2 diabetes.

Nuclear Factor I-C acts as a regulator of hepatocyte proliferation at the onset of liver regeneration.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Knockout studies of the murine Nuclear Factor I-C (NFI-C) transcription factor revealed abnormal skin wound healing and growth of its appendages, suggesting a role in controlling cell proliferation in adult regenerative processes. Liver regeneration following partial hepatectomy (PH) is a well-established regenerative model whereby changes elicited in hepatocytes lead to their rapid and phased proliferation. Although NFI-C is highly expressed in the liver, no hepatic function was yet established for this transcription factor. This study aimed to determine whether NFI-C may play a role in hepatocyte proliferation and liver regeneration. METHODS: Liver regeneration and cell proliferation pathways following two-thirds PH were investigated in NFI-C knockout (ko) and wild-type (wt) mice. RESULTS: We show that the absence of NFI-C impaired hepatocyte proliferation because of plasminogen activator I (PAI-1) overexpression and the subsequent suppression of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) activity and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) signalling, a potent hepatocyte mitogen. This indicated that NFI-C first acts to promote hepatocyte proliferation at the onset of liver regeneration in wt mice. The subsequent transient down regulation of NFI-C, as can be explained by a self-regulatory feedback loop with transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-ß1), may limit the number of hepatocytes entering the first wave of cell division and/or prevent late initiations of mitosis. CONCLUSION: NFI-C acts as a regulator of the phased hepatocyte proliferation during liver regeneration.

MicroRNAs and the functional β cell mass: For better or worse.

Insulin secretion from pancreatic β cells plays a central role in the control of blood glucose levels. The amount of insulin released by β cells is precisely adjusted to match organism requirements. A number of conditions that arise during life, including pregnancy and obesity, can result in a decreased sensitivity of insulin target tissues and a consequent rise in insulin needs. To preserve glucose homoeostasis, the augmented insulin demand requires a compensatory expansion of the pancreatic β cell mass and an increase in its secretory activity. This compensatory process is accompanied by modifications in β cell gene expression, although the molecular mechanisms underlying the phenomenon are still poorly understood. Emerging evidence indicates that at least part of these compensatory events may be orchestrated by changes in the level of a novel class of gene regulators, the microRNAs. Indeed, several of these small, non-coding RNAs have either positive or negative impacts on β cell proliferation and survival. The studies reviewed here suggest that the balance between the actions of these two groups of microRNAs, which have opposing functional effects, can determine whether β cells expand sufficiently to maintain blood glucose levels in the normal range or fail to meet insulin demand and thus lead, as a consequence, towards diabetes manifestation. A better understanding of the mechanisms governing changes in the microRNA profile will open the way for the development of new strategies to prevent and/or treat both type 2 and gestational diabetes.

The role of the microRNAs in the age-associated oancreatic β-cell dysfunction

Le corps humain emploie le glucose comme source principale d'énergie. L'insuline, sécrétée par les cellules ß-pancreatiques situées dans les îlots de Langerhans, est l'hormone principale assurant un maintien constant du taux de glucose sanguin (glycémie). Les prédispositions génétiques, le manque d'activité physique et un régime déséquilibré peuvent entraîner une perte de sensibilité à l'insuline et des taux de glucose dans le sang élevé (hyperglycémie), une condition nommée diabète de type 2. Cette maladie est initiée par une sensibilité diminuée à l'insuline dans les tissus périphériques, entraînant une demande accrue en insuline. Cette pression continue finie par épuiser les cellules ß-pancreatiques, qui sécrètent alors des niveaux d'insuline insuffisant en trainant l'apparition du diabète. Le vieillissement est un facteur de risque important pour les maladies métaboliques dont le diabète de type 2 faits partis. En effet la majeure partie des diabétiques de type 2 ont plus de 45 ans. Il est connu que le vieillissement entraine une perte de sensibilité à l'insuline, une sécrétion altérée d'insuline, une baisse de réplication et une plus grande mort des ß-cellules pancréatiques. Le but de ma thèse était de mieux comprendre les mécanismes contribuante au dysfonctionnement des cellules ß- pancréatiques lors du vieillissement. Les travaux du « Human Genome Project » ont révélés que seulement 2% de notre génome code pour des protéines. Le reste non-codant fut alors désigné sous le nom de « ADN déchets ». Cependant, l'étude approfondie de cet ADN non-codant ces dernières deux décennies a démontré qu'une grande partie code pour des «MicroARNs », des ARNs courts (20-22 nucleotides) découverts en 1997 chez le vers C.elegans. Depuis lors ces molécules ont été intensivement étudiées, révélant un rôle crucial de ces molécules dans la fonction et la survie des cellules en conditions normales et pathologiques. Le but de cette thèse était d'étudier le rôle des microARNs dans le dysfonctionnement des cellules ß lors du vieillissement. Nos données suggèrent qu'ils peuvent jouer un rôle tantôt salutaire, tantôt nocif sur les cellules ß. Par exemple, certains microARNs réduisent la capacité des cellules ß à se multiplier ou réduisent leur survie, alors que d'autres protègent ces cellules contre la mort. Pour conclure, nous avons démontré les microARNs jouent un rôle important dans le dysfonctionnement des cellules ß lors du vieillissement. Ces nouvelles découvertes préparent le terrain pour la conception de futures stratégies visant à améliorer la résistance des cellules ß pancréatiques afin de trouver de nouveaux traitements du diabète de type 2. -- Le diabète de type 2 est une maladie métabolique due à la résistance à l'action de l'insuline des tissus cibles combinée à l'incapacité des cellules ß pancréatiques à sécréter les niveaux adéquats d'insuline. Le vieillissement est associé à un déclin global des fonctions de l'organisme incluant une diminution de la fonction et du renouvellement des cellules ß pancréatiques. Il constitue ainsi un risque majeur de développement des maladies métaboliques dont le diabète de type 2. Le but de cette thèse était d'étudier le rôle des microARNs (une classe d'ARN non- codants) dans le dysfonctionnement lié au vieillissement des cellules ß. L'analyse par microarray des niveaux d'expression des microARN dans les îlots pancréatiques de rats Wistar mâles âgés de 3 et 12 mois nous a permis d'identifier de nombreux changements d'expression de microARNs associés au vieillissement. Afin d'étudier les liens entre ces modifications et le déclin des cellules ß, les changements observés lors du vieillissement ont été reproduits spécifiquement dans une lignée cellulaire, dans des cellules ß primaires de jeune rats ou de donneurs humains sains. La diminution du miR-181a réduit la prolifération des cellules ß, tandis que la diminution du miR-130b ou l'augmentation du miR-383 protège contre l'apoptose induite par les cytokines. L'augmentation du miR-34a induit l'apoptose et inhibe la prolifération des cellules ß en réponse aux hormones Exendin-4 et prolactine et au facteur de croissance PDGF-AA. Cette perte de capacité réplicative est similaire à celle observée dans des cellules ß de rats âgés de 12 mois. Dans la littérature, la perte du récepteur au PDGF-r-a est associée à la diminution de la capacité proliférative des cellules ß observée lors du vieillissement. Nous avons pu démontrer que PDGF-r-a est une cible directe de miR- 34a, suggérant que l'effet néfaste de miR-34a sur la prolifération des cellules ß est, du moins en partie, lié à l'inhibition de l'expression de PDGF-r-a. L'expression de ce miR est aussi plus élevée dans le foie et le cerveau des animaux de 1 an et augmente avec l'âge dans les ilôts de donneurs non-diabétiques. Ces résultats suggèrent que miR-34a pourrait être non seulement impliqué dans l'affaiblissement des fonctions pancréatiques associé à l'âge, mais également jouer un rôle dans les tissus cibles de l'insuline et ainsi contribuer au vieillissement de l'organisme en général. Pour conclure, les travaux obtenus durant cette thèse suggèrent que des microARNs sont impliqués dans le dysfonctionnement des cellules ß pancréatiques durant le vieillissement. -- Type 2 diabetes is a metabolic disease characterized by impaired glucose tolerance, of the insulin sensitive tissues and insufficient insulin secretion from the pancreatic ß-cells to sustain the organism demand. Aging is a risk factor for the majority of the metabolic diseases including type 2 diabetes. With aging is observed a decline in all body function, due to decrease both in cell efficiency and renewal. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the potential role of microRNAs (short non- coding RNAs) in the pancreatic ß-cell dysfunction associated with aging. Microarray analysis of microRNA expression profile in pancreatic islets from 3 and 12 month old Wistar male rats revealed important changes in several microRNAs. To further study the link between those alterations and the decline of ß-cells, the changes observed in old rats were mimicked in immortalized ß-cell lines, primary young rat and human islets. Downregulation of miR-181a inhibited pancreatic ß-cell proliferation in response to proliferative drugs, whereas downregulation of miR-130b and upregulation of miR-383 protected pancreatic ß-cells from cytokine stimulated apoptosis. Interestingly, miR-34a augmented pancreatic ß-cell apoptosis and inhibited ß-cell proliferation in response to the proliferative chemicals Exendin-4, prolactin and PDGF-AA. This loss of replicative capacity is reminiscent of what we observed in pancreatic ß-cells isolated from 12 month old rats. We further observed a correlation between the inhibitory effect of miR-34a on pancreatic ß-cell proliferation and its direct interfering effect of this microRNA on PDGF-r-a, which was previously reported to be involved in the age-associated decline of pancreatic ß-cell proliferation. Interestingly miR-34a was upregulated in the liver and brain of 1 year old animals and positively correlated with age in pancreatic islets of normoglycemic human donors. These results suggest that miR-34a might be not only involved in the age-associated impairment of the pancreatic ß-cell functions, but also play a role in insulin target tissues and contribute to the aging phenotype on the organism level. To conclude, we have demonstrated that microRNAs are indeed involved in the age-associated pancreatic ß-cell dysfunction and they can play both beneficial and harmful roles in the context of pancreatic ß-cell aging.

Breast implant-associated anaplastic large cell lymphoma: two distinct clinicopathological variants with different outcomes.

BACKGROUND: ALK-negative anaplastic large cell lymphoma associated with breast implant (i-ALCL) has been recently recognized as a distinct entity. Among 43 830 lymphomas registered in the French Lymphopath network since 2010, 300 breast lymphomas comprising 25 peripheral T-cell lymphomas (PTCL) were reviewed. Among PTCL, ALK-negative ALCL was the most frequent and all of them were associated with breast implants. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Since 2010, all i-ALCL cases were collected from different institutions through Lymphopath. Immuno-morphologic features, molecular data and clinical outcome of 19 i-ALCLs have been retrospectively analyzed. RESULTS: The median age of the patients was 61 years and the median length between breast implant and i-ALCL was 9 years. Most implants were silicone-filled and textured. Implant removal was performed in 17 out of 19 patients with additional treatment based on mostly CHOP or CHOP-like chemotherapy regimens (n = 10/19) or irradiation (n = 1/19). CHOP alone or ABVD following radiation without implant removal have been given in two patients. The two clinical presentations, i.e. effusion and less frequently tumor mass correlated with distinct histopathologic features: in situ i-ALCL (anaplastic cell proliferation confined to the fibrous capsule) and infiltrative i-ALCL (pleomorphic cells massively infiltrating adjacent tissue with eosinophils and sometimes Reed-Sternberg-like cells mimicking Hodgkin lymphoma). Malignant cells were CD30-positive, showed a variable staining for EMA and were ALK negative. Most cases had a cytotoxic T-cell immunophenotype with variable T-cell antigen loss and pSTAT3 nuclear expression. T-cell receptor genes were clonally rearranged in 13 out of 13 tested cases. After 18 months of median follow-up, the 2-year overall survival for in situ and infiltrative i-ALCL was 100% and 52.5%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In situ i-ALCLs have an indolent clinical course and generally remain free of disease after implant removal. However, infiltrative i-ALCLs could have a more aggressive clinical course that might require additional therapy to implant removal.

Trapping of naive lymphocytes triggers rapid growth and remodeling of the fibroblast network in reactive murine lymph nodes.

Adaptive immunity is initiated in T-cell zones of secondary lymphoid organs. These zones are organized in a rigid 3D network of fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs) that are a rich cytokine source. In response to lymph-borne antigens, draining lymph nodes (LNs) expand several folds in size, but the fate and role of the FRC network during immune response is not fully understood. Here we show that T-cell responses are accompanied by the rapid activation and growth of FRCs, leading to an expanded but similarly organized network of T-zone FRCs that maintains its vital function for lymphocyte trafficking and survival. In addition, new FRC-rich environments were observed in the expanded medullary cords. FRCs are activated within hours after the onset of inflammation in the periphery. Surprisingly, FRC expansion depends mainly on trapping of naïve lymphocytes that is induced by both migratory and resident dendritic cells. Inflammatory signals are not required as homeostatic T-cell proliferation was sufficient to trigger FRC expansion. Activated lymphocytes are also dispensable for this process, but can enhance the later growth phase. Thus, this study documents the surprising plasticity as well as the complex regulation of FRC networks allowing the rapid LN hyperplasia that is critical for mounting efficient adaptive immunity.

Expression of protease-activated receptors in arthritic synovial tissues

Clinical and experimental evidence suggests that synovial thrombin formation in arthritic joints is prominent and deleterious, leading to exacerbation of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this context, cellular effects of thrombin mediated by the protease-activated receptors (PARs) in arthritic joints may be of paramount significance. Four PARs have now been identified. PAR1, PAR3, and PAR4 can all be activated by thrombin whereas PAR2 is activated by trypsin and few other proteases.We first explored PARs expression in RA synovial tissues. Synovial membranes from 11 RA patients were analyzed for PARs expression by RT-PCR and by immunohistology. PAR4 was found in all the biopsies, whereas the expression of PAR1, PAR 2 and PAR3 was more restricted (8/11, 5/11 and 3/11 respectively). In the arthritic synovial membrane of murine antigen-induced arthritis (AIA) we found coexpression of the four different PARs. Next, we explored the functional importance of PAR1 during AIA in vivo using PAR-1 deficient mice. The phenotype of PAR1-deficient mice (n = 22), based on the analysis of arthritis severity (as measured by 99 m tecnetium uptake, histological scoring and intra-articular fibrin measurements) was similar to that of wild-type mice (n = 24). In addition, the in vivo production of antibodies against mBSA was also similar. By contrast, the mBSA-induced in vitro lymph node cell proliferation was significantly decreased in PAR1-deficient mice as compared with controls. Accordingly, mBSA-induced production of interferon-γ by lymph node cells in culture was significantly decreased in PAR1-deficient mice as compared with controls, whereas opposite results were observed for production of IL-10.