Psychothérapie et mécanismes de défense = Psychotherapy and defense mechanisms

Dans cet article, les auteurs mettent en dialogue deux facettes des mécanismes de défense en situation psychothérapeutique : la psychopathologie et le changement. Pour commencer, les instruments de mesure les plus utilisés sont présentés, avec un accent sur les échelles d'évaluation par un juge externe. Les conceptions de Vaillant et de Perry sont présentées et discutées. L'article se continue avec une synthèse des travaux empiriques de recherche en psychothérapie se focalisant sur les changements des mécanismes de défense au cours des psychothérapies, principalement d'orientation psychanalytique. Une réflexion autour du lien avec le concept d'alliance thérapeutique, ainsi qu'avec celui du coping complète cette synthèse. Des travaux récents concernant des psychothérapies de courte et de longue durée sont ensuite abordés. Les défenses sont également discutées du point de vue de la psychopathologie, à travers deux exemples d'études empiriques mettant en évidence des spécificités dans des troubles psychiatriques. Les retombées de ces résultats de recherche pour la pratique psychanalytique sont mentionnées tout au long de cet article de synthèse. With the present article, we aim to develop a dialogue between two aspects of defense mechanisms in psychotherapy : psychopathology and change. First, the most frequently used instruments will be presented, with a particular focus on observer-rated scales, and Vaillant's and Perry's models are sketched and discussed. Then, we review empirical research on changes in defense mechanisms over the course of psychotherapy, mainly psychoanalytic. An elaboration on the links with the concept of therapeutic alliance and the concept of coping completes this overview. Recent studies on change in short- and long-term psychotherapy are then discussed. Defense mechanisms are then examined from a psychopathology point of view, using two examples of empirical studies pointing to distinctive characteristics of mental disorders. Clinical implications for psychoanalytic practice are discussed throughout the article.

Historical contingency affects signaling strategies and competitive abilities in evolving populations of simulated robots.

One of the key innovations during the evolution of life on earth has been the emergence of efficient communication systems, yet little is known about the causes and consequences of the great diversity within and between species. By conducting experimental evolution in 20 independently evolving populations of cooperatively foraging simulated robots, we found that historical contingency in the occurrence order of novel phenotypic traits resulted in the emergence of two distinct communication strategies. The more complex foraging strategy was less efficient than the simpler strategy. However, when the 20 populations were placed in competition with each other, the populations with the more complex strategy outperformed the populations with the less complex strategy. These results demonstrate a tradeoff between communication efficiency and robustness and suggest that stochastic events have important effects on signal evolution and the outcome of competition between distinct populations.

Individual and dyadic coping strategies in the aftermath of a traumatic experience

This study was designed to explore individual and dyadic coping strategies in the aftermath of a traumatic event. Eighteen persons having experienced a physical assault or a road accident within six to twelve months before the study, and eighteen matched control persons were recruited together with their partners. Each participant and his/her partner filled in several questionnaires on individual and dyadic coping strategies, level of stress and PTSD-symptomatology. Results indicate that participants having experienced a trauma, compared to controls, report a general lack of dyadic coping and, when facing daily hassles, specific decreases in individual coping strategies. These differences are discussed in the context of marital coping processes.

Transcriptome and membrane fatty acid analyses reveal different strategies for responding to permeating and non-permeating solutes in the bacterium Sphingomonas wittichii.

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Sphingomonas wittichii strain RW1 can completely oxidize dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans, which are persistent contaminants of soils and sediments. For successful application in soil bioremediation systems, strain RW1 must cope with fluctuations in water availability, or water potential. Thus far, however, little is known about the adaptive strategies used by Sphingomonas bacteria to respond to changes in water potential. To improve our understanding, strain RW1 was perturbed with either the cell-permeating solute sodium chloride or the non-permeating solute polyethylene glycol with a molecular weight of 8000 (PEG8000). These solutes are assumed to simulate the solute and matric components of the total water potential, respectively. The responses to these perturbations were then assessed and compared using a combination of growth assays, transcriptome profiling, and membrane fatty acid analyses. RESULTS: Under conditions producing a similar decrease in water potential but without effect on growth rate, there was only a limited shared response to perturbation with sodium chloride or PEG8000. This shared response included the increased expression of genes involved with trehalose and exopolysaccharide biosynthesis and the reduced expression of genes involved with flagella biosynthesis. Mostly, the responses to perturbation with sodium chloride or PEG8000 were very different. Only sodium chloride triggered the increased expression of two ECF-type RNA polymerase sigma factors and the differential expression of many genes involved with outer membrane and amino acid metabolism. In contrast, only PEG8000 triggered the increased expression of a heat shock-type RNA polymerase sigma factor along with many genes involved with protein turnover and repair. Membrane fatty acid analyses further corroborated these differences. The degree of saturation of membrane fatty acids increased after perturbation with sodium chloride but had the opposite effect and decreased after perturbation with PEG8000. CONCLUSIONS: A combination of growth assays, transcriptome profiling, and membrane fatty acid analyses revealed that permeating and non-permeating solutes trigger different adaptive responses in strain RW1, suggesting these solutes affect cells in fundamentally different ways. Future work is now needed that connects these responses with the responses observed in more realistic scenarios of soil desiccation.

Drosophila intestinal response to bacterial infection: activation of host defense and stem cell proliferation.

Although Drosophila systemic immunity is extensively studied, little is known about the fly's intestine-specific responses to bacterial infection. Global gene expression analysis of Drosophila intestinal tissue to oral infection with the Gram-negative bacterium Erwinia carotovora revealed that immune responses in the gut are regulated by the Imd and JAK-STAT pathways, but not the Toll pathway. Ingestion of bacteria had a dramatic impact on the physiology of the gut that included modulation of stress response and increased stem cell proliferation and epithelial renewal. Our data suggest that gut homeostasis is maintained through a balance between cell damage due to the collateral effects of bacteria killing and epithelial repair by stem cell division. The Drosophila gut provides a powerful model to study the integration of stress and immunity with pathways associated with stem cell control, and this study should prove to be a useful resource for such further studies.

Male beach workers and western female tourists : livelihood strategies in Kenya's south coast region

Recent years have seen an emerging knowledge base and increasing public interest and awareness of sexual-economic relationships between local men and Western women, in different touristic regions around the world. However, to date, Western perspectives on the phenomenon make up the bulk of the existent literature. Questioning the dominant discourse of 'romance tourism' and representations of male participants as 'victims-opportunists', this dissertation explores male beach workers' experiences with, and perspectives on sexual-economic relationships between Kenyan men and visiting Western women in Kenya's South Coast region. The men were not considered in isolation; their experiences and perspectives are situated in relation to their family ties, social networks and the political economy of beach tourism. The study shows that locally these relationships are clearly understood as livelihood strategies for the visited. Men seek to establish long-term intimate relationships with female tourists as a means to accessing life's basic necessities for themselves and for their families and overall to improve their standards of living. It is argued that these relationships are a response to the poverty and inequalities generated by socio-economic changes over time. They are also a response to local gender role prescriptions that hinge male social value on men's capacity to marry, procreate and provide intergenerational social and economic support. The men's parallel quest for non-sexual economically motivated friendships with visiting foreign tourists termed "family friends" is a salient finding, that serves to reinforce the finding that the sexual- economic relationships are above all livelihood strategies. Résumé Ces dernières années ont vu l'émergence d'une base de connaissance, ainsi que d'un intérêt et d'une prise de conscience accrue du public, à l'égard des relations économico-sexuelles entre hommes locaux et femmes occidentales, dans différentes régions touristiques du monde. Cependant, à ce jour, des perspectives occidentales sur ce phénomène constituent l'essentiel de la littérature existante. En remettant en question le discours dominant du «romance tourism» (tourisme sentimental) et les représentations qui conçoivent les hommes participants comme étant 'victimes-opportunistes', cette thèse explore les expériences, et les visions qu'ont les travailleurs de plage sur les relations économico-sexuelles entre hommes Kenyans et femmes Occidentales dans la région de la côte sud du Kenya. Les hommes n'ont pas été considérés de manière isolée; leurs expériences et leurs perspectives sont situées par rapport à leur liens familiaux, leur réseaux sociaux et aussi par rapport à l'économie politique du tourisme balnéaire. L'étude montre que sur place ces relations sont clairement conçues comme des stratégies de survie pour les participants hôtes. Les hommes cherchent à établir des relations de long durée avec des femmes touristes comme moyen d'accéder à des biens et des services qui constituent des nécessités de bases, pour eux et pour leur familles et globalement pour relever leur niveau de vie! L'étude fait valoir que ces relations sont une réponse à la pauvreté et aux inégalités sociales crées par des dynamiques socio-économiques au fil du temps. Elles sont aussi une réponse au prescriptions sociales locales par lesquelles la valeur sociale masculine est définie à travers la capacité des hommes à se marier, à procréer et d'assurer un soutien intergénérationnel social et économique. La quête, en parallèle, de relations d'amitiés non-sexuelles à motivation économique, dénommé « family friends », par des hommes, est un résultat saillant de cette étude qui vient renforcer l'observation que les relations économico-sexuelles relèvent avant tout des stratégies de survie.

Nrf2 links epidermal barrier function with antioxidant defense.

The skin provides an efficient permeability barrier and protects from microbial invasion and oxidative stress. Here, we show that these essential functions are linked through the Nrf2 transcription factor. To test the hypothesis that activation of Nrf2 provides skin protection under stress conditions, we determined the consequences of pharmacological or genetic activation of Nrf2 in keratinocytes. Surprisingly, mice with enhanced Nrf2 activity in keratinocytes developed epidermal thickening, hyperkeratosis and inflammation resembling lamellar ichthyosis. This resulted from upregulation of the cornified envelope proteins small proline-rich proteins (Sprr) 2d and 2h and of secretory leukocyte peptidase inhibitor (Slpi), which we identified as novel Nrf2 targets in keratinocytes. Since Sprrs are potent scavengers of reactive oxygen species and since Slpi has antimicrobial activities, their upregulation contributes to Nrf2's protective function. However, it also caused corneocyte fragility and impaired desquamation, followed by alterations in the epidermal lipid barrier, inflammation and overexpression of mitogens that induced keratinocyte hyperproliferation. These results identify an unexpected role of Nrf2 in epidermal barrier function, which needs to be considered for pharmacological use of Nrf2 activators.

Correlation of O6-methylguanine methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter methylation with clinical outcomes in glioblastoma and clinical strategies to modulate MGMT activity.

Resistance to alkylating agents via direct DNA repair by O(6)-methylguanine methyltransferase (MGMT) remains a significant barrier to the successful treatment of patients with malignant glioma. The relative expression of MGMT in the tumor may determine response to alkylating agents, and epigenetic silencing of the MGMT gene by promoter methylation plays an important role in regulating MGMT expression in gliomas. MGMT promoter methylation is correlated with improved progression-free and overall survival in patients treated with alkylating agents. Strategies to overcome MGMT-mediated chemoresistance are being actively investigated. These include treatment with nontoxic pseudosubstrate inhibitors of MGMT, such as O(6)-benzylguanine, or RNA interference-mediated gene silencing of MGMT. However, systemic application of MGMT inhibitors is limited by an increase in hematologic toxicity. Another strategy is to deplete MGMT activity in tumor tissue using a dose-dense temozolomide schedule. These alternative schedules are well tolerated; however, it remains unclear whether they are more effective than the standard dosing regimen or whether they effectively deplete MGMT activity in tumor tissue. Of note, not all patients with glioblastoma having MGMT promoter methylation respond to alkylating agents, and even those who respond will inevitably experience relapse. Herein we review the data supporting MGMT as a major mechanism of chemotherapy resistance in malignant gliomas and describe ongoing studies that are testing resistance-modulating strategies.

Plant defense against herbivory: progress in identifying synergism, redundancy, and antagonism between resistance traits.

Plants respond to herbivore attack through a complex and variable system of defense, involving different physical barriers, toxic chemicals, and recruitment of natural enemies. To fully understand the relative role of each type of defense, their synergisms, redundancies, or antagonisms between traits, a variety of methods of enquiry, commonly used in plant physiology and ecology, have been employed. By overexpressing or silencing genes of interest, it is possible to understand the specific role of a particular defensive molecule or mode of action. We argue, however, that these types of experiments alone are not enough to holistically understand the physiological as well as ecological role of plant defenses. We thus advocate for the use of a combination of methods, including genetic modification, quantitative genetics, and phylogenetically controlled comparative studies.

Understanding the ecological niche to elucidate spatial strategies of the southernmost Tupinambis lizards

Understanding factors that shape ranges of species is central in evolutionary biology. Species distribution models have become important tools to test biogeographical, ecological and evolutionary hypotheses. Moreover, from an ecological and evolutionary perspective, these models help to elucidate the spatial strategies of species at a regional scale. We modelled species distributions of two phylogenetically, geographically and ecologically close Tupinambis species (Teiidae) that occupy the southernmost area of the genus distribution in South America. We hypothesized that similarities between these species might have induced spatial strategies at the species level, such as niche differentiation and divergence of distribution patterns at a regional scale. Using logistic regression and MaxEnt we obtained species distribution models that revealed interspecific differences in habitat requirements, such as environmental temperature, precipitation and altitude. Moreover, the models obtained suggest that although the ecological niches of Tupinambis merianae and T. rufescens are different, these species might co-occur in a large contact zone. We propose that niche plasticity could be the mechanism enabling their co-occurrence. Therefore, the approach used here allowed us to understand the spatial strategies of two Tupinambis lizards at a regional scale.

Strategies de traitement dans l'hypertension arterielle essentielle. [Treatment strategies in essential arterial hypertension]

Essential hypertension is a very heterogeneous disease. The availability of antihypertensive drugs lowering blood pressure by various mechanisms allows most often to tailor the treatment, i.e. to find for each patient a drug regimen that is both efficient and well tolerated. Frequently medications given as monotherapy are not effective enough so that the use of drug combinations is required. When combined, low doses of antihypertensive agents are generally sufficient, so that tolerability is optimally preserved. Unfortunately many patients do not have their blood pressure controlled during antihypertensive therapy. These patients therefore do not benefit maximally from the cardiovascular protection afforded by blood pressure lowering. It is also imperative to correct all cardiovascular risk factors in each hypertensive patient. Such a multifactorial approach is known to improve effectively the prevention of cardiovascular diseases.

Transformations in Deuteronomistic and Biblical Historiography. On "Book-Finding" and other Literary Strategies

L'a. cherche à dater l'historiographie deutéronomiste et à établir une transformation à l'intérieur de cette historiographie. Les écrits de propagande de l'époque de Josias (Rois, Deutéronome, Josué, Exode et Nombres) ont été changés après la catastrophe de 597/87 en récit historique prenant une distance et présentant la Tora prenant la relève de l'autorité perdue du Temple. L'A. peut ainsi pencher pour une rédaction de ce courant historiographique datant de l'époque post-éxilique.

Strategies for improving outcomes in NSCLC: a look to the future.

Advances in the management of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) over the past 30 years have led to small increases in 5-year survival rates across Europe, though further improvements may require new treatment strategies. In order to improve efficiency and reduce the cost of development, future trials for new targeted agents in NSCLC should aim to recruit patients on the basis of tumour biology rather than clinical characteristics. However, identification of predictive biomarkers is required to maximise the benefits of new approaches and expedite the drug development process. Nevertheless, the NSCLC landscape is changing rapidly, and recent improvements in our understanding of the molecular biology of the disease will help in the identification of novel targeted agents as well as assisting in the development of personalised strategies for the numerous small subsets of defined NSCLC. Progress in imaging and treatment delivery is also likely to improve outcomes for patients with the disease. This article outlines recent progress in the treatment of NSCLC, identifies current challenges and describes proposals for improving the future management of the disease. It is hoped that implementation of some of these strategies will go some way to improving the outlook for patients with NSCLC.