New insights into the regulatory mechanisms of the NALP3 inflammasome

Résumé : Les vertébrés ont recours au système immunitaire inné et adaptatif pour combattre les pathogènes. La découverte des récepteurs Toll, il y a dix ans, a fortement augmenté l'intérêt porté à l'immunité innée. Depuis lors, des récepteurs intracellulaires tels que les membres de la famille RIG-like helicase (RLHs) et NOD-like receptor (NLRs) ont été décrits pour leur rôle dans la détection des pathogènes. L'interleukine-1 beta (IL-1β) est une cytokine pro-inflammatoire qui est synthétisée sous forme de précurseur, la proIL-1β. La proIL-1β requiert d'être clivée par la caspase-1 pour devenir active. La caspase-1 est elle-même activée par un complexe appelé inflammasome qui peut être formé par divers membres de la famille NLR. Plusieurs inflammasomes ont été décrits tels que le NALP3 inflammasome ou l'IPAF inflammasome. Dans cette étude nous avons identifié la co-chaperone SGT1 et la chaperone HSP90 comme partenaires d'interaction de NALP3. Ces deux protéines sont bien connues chez les plantes pour leurs rôles dans la régulation des gènes de résistance (gène R) qui sont structurellement apparentés à la famille NLR. Nous avons pu montrer que SGT1 et HSP90 jouent un rôle similaire dans la régulation de NALP3 et des protéines R. En effet, nous avons démontré que les deux protéines sont nécessaires pour l'activité du NALP3 inflammasome. De plus, la HSP90 est également requise pour la stabilité de NALP3. En se basant sur ces observations, nous avons proposé un modèle dans lequel SGT1 et HSP90 maintiennent NALP3 inactif mais prêt à percevoir un ligand activateur qui initierait la cascade inflammatoire. Nous avons également montré une interaction entre SGT1 et HSP90 avec plusieurs NLRs. Cette observation suggère qu'un mécanisme similaire pourrait être impliqué dans la régulation des membres de la famille des NLRs. Ces dernières années, plusieurs PAMPs mais également des DAMPs ont été identifiés comme activateurs du NALP3 inflammasome. Dans la seconde partie de cette étude, nous avons identifié la réponse au stress du réticulum endoplasmique (RE) comme nouvel activateur du NALP3 inflammasome. Cette réponse est initiée lors de l'accumulation dans le réticulum endoplasmique de protéines ayant une mauvaise conformation ce qui conduit, en autre, à l'arrêt de la synthèse de nouvelles protéines ainsi qu'une augmentation de la dégradation des protéines. Les mécanismes par lesquels la réponse du réticulum endoplasmique induit l'activation du NALP3 inflammasome doivent encore être déterminés. Summary : Vertebrates rely on the adaptive and the innate immune systems to fight pathogens. Awarness of the importance of the innate system increased with the identification of Toll-like receptors a decade ago. Since then, intracellular receptors such as the RIG-like helicase (RLH) and the NOD-like receptor (NLR) families have been described for their role in the recognition of microbes. Interleukin- 1ß (IL-1ß) is a key mediator of inflammation. This proinflammatory cytokine is synthesised as an inactive precursor that requires processing by caspase-1 to become active. Caspase-1 is, itself, activated in a complex termed the inflammasome that can be formed by members of the NLR family. Various inflammasome complexes have been described such as the IPAF and the NALP3 inflammasome. In this study, we have identified the co-chaperone SGT1 and the chaperone HSP90 as interacting partners of NALP3. SGT1 and HSP90 are both known for their role in the activity of plant resistance proteins (R proteins) which are structurally related to the NLR family. We have shown that HSP90 and SGT1 play a similar role in the regulation of NALP3 and in the regulation of plant R proteins. Indeed, we demonstrated that both HSP90 and SGT1 are essential for the activity of the NALP3 inflammasome complex. In addition, HSP90 is required for the stability of NALP3. Based on these observations, we have proposed a model in which SGT1 and HSP90 maintain NALP3 in an inactive but signaling-competent state, ready to receive an activating ligand that induces the inflammatory cascade. An interaction between several NLR members, SGTI and HSP90 was also shown, suggesting that similar mechanisms could be involved in the regulation of other NLRs. Several pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) but also danger associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) have been identified as NALP3 activators. In the second part of this study, we have identified the ER stress response as a new NALP3 activator. The ER stress response is activated upon the accumulation of unfolded protein in the endoplasmic reticulum and results in a block in protein synthesis and increased protein degradation. The mechanisms of ER stress-mediated NALP3 activation remain to be determined.

Experimental peripheral arterial disease: new insights into muscle glucose uptake, macrophage, and T-cell polarization during early and late stages.

Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a common disease with increasing prevalence, presenting with impaired walking ability affecting patient's quality of life. PAD epidemiology is known, however, mechanisms underlying functional muscle impairment remain unclear. Using a mouse PAD model, aim of this study was to assess muscle adaptive responses during early (1 week) and late (5 weeks) disease stages. Unilateral hindlimb ischemia was induced in ApoE(-/-) mice by iliac artery ligation. Ischemic limb perfusion and oxygenation (Laser Doppler imaging, transcutaneous oxygen pressure assessments) significantly decreased during early and late stage compared to pre-ischemia, however, values were significantly higher during late versus early phase. Number of arterioles and arteriogenesis-linked gene expression increased at later stage. Walking ability, evaluated by forced and voluntary walking tests, remained significantly decreased both at early and late phase without any significant improvement. Muscle glucose uptake ([18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography) significantly increased during early ischemia decreasing at later stage. Gene expression analysis showed significant shift in muscle M1/M2 macrophages and Th1/Th2 T cells balance toward pro-inflammatory phenotype during early ischemia; later, inflammatory state returned to neutrality. Muscular M1/M2 shift inhibition by a statin prevented impaired walking ability in early ischemia. High-energy phosphate metabolism remained unchanged (31-Phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy). Results show that rapid transient muscular inflammation contributes to impaired walking capacity while increased glucose uptake may be a compensatory mechanisms preserving immediate limb viability during early ischemia in a mouse PAD model. With time, increased ischemic limb perfusion and oxygenation assure muscle viability although not sufficiently to improve walking impairment. Subsequent decreased muscle glucose uptake may partly contribute to chronic walking impairment. Early inflammation inhibition and/or late muscle glucose impairment prevention are promising strategies for PAD management.

Hepatitis C virus proteins promote mitochondrial bioenergetic dysfunction and nitro-oxidative stress: insights into pathogenesis

HCV-infection induces a state of oxidative stress more pronounced than in many other inflammatory diseases. Here we propose a temporal sequence of events in the HCV-infected cell whereby the primary alteration consists in release of Ca2+ from the ER followed by uptake into mitochondria. This triggers successive mitochondrial dysfunctions leading to generation of ROS and to a progressive metabolic adaptive response. Pathogenetic implications of the model and new opportunities for therapeutic intervention are discussed.

Insights into neuronal cell metabolism using NMR spectroscopy: uridyl diphosphate N-acetyl-glucosamine as a unique metabolic marker.

Making the switch: Compounds 1 and 2 are used as metabolic markers for NMR detection. When neuronal cells switch to a glycolytic state, an uneven distribution of (13) C in the N-acetyl group results, thus giving a mixture of the metabolites 1 and 2. It is therefore possible to monitor flux through different metabolic pathways, such as glycolysis, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway, using a single molecule.