47 resultados para sort


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In sharp contrast with birds and mammals, sex-determination systems in ectothermic vertebrates are often highly dynamic and sometimes multifactorial. Both environmental and genetic effects have been documented in common frogs (Rana temporaria). One genetic linkage group, mapping to the largest pair of chromosomes and harbouring the candidate sex-determining gene Dmrt1, associates with sex in several populations throughout Europe, but association varies both within and among populations. Here, we show that sex association at this linkage group differs among populations along a 1500-km transect across Sweden. Genetic differentiation between sexes is strongest (FST  = 0.152) in a northern-boreal population, where male-specific alleles and heterozygote excesses (FIS  = -0.418 in males, +0.025 in females) testify to a male-heterogametic system and lack of X-Y recombination. In the southernmost population (nemoral climate), in contrast, sexes share the same alleles at the same frequencies (FST  = 0.007 between sexes), suggesting unrestricted recombination. Other populations show intermediate levels of sex differentiation, with males falling in two categories: some cluster with females, while others display male-specific Y haplotypes. This polymorphism may result from differences between populations in the patterns of X-Y recombination, co-option of an alternative sex-chromosome pair, or a mixed sex-determination system where maleness is controlled either by genes or by environment depending on populations or families. We propose approaches to test among these alternative models, to disentangle the effects of climate and phylogeography on the latitudinal trend, and to sort out how this polymorphism relates to the 'sexual races' described in common frogs in the 1930s.

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Bowlby proposed that the individual's social experiences, as early as in infancy, contribute to the construction of Internal Working Models (IWMs) of attachment, which will later guide the individual's expectations and behaviors in close relationships all along his or her life. The qualitative, individual characteristics of these models reflect the specificity of the individual's early experiences with attachment figures. The attachment literature globally shows that the qualities of IWMs are neither gender specific nor cultural specific. Procedures to evaluate IWMs in adulthood have been well established, based on narrative accounts of childhood experiences. Narrative procedures at earlier ages (e.g., in the preschool years) have been proposed, such as Bretherton's Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT), to evaluate attachment representations. More than 500 ASCT narratives of preschoolers, coming from five different countries, have been collected, in the perspective of examining possible interactions between gender and culture regarding attachment representations. A specific Q-Sort coding procedure (CCH) has been used to evaluate several dimensions of the narratives. Girls' narratives appeared as systematically more secure than those of same-age boys, whatever their culture. The magnitude of gender differences, however, varied between countries. Taylor's model of gender-specific responses to stress and Harwood's and Posada's hypothesis on inter-cultural differences regarding caregiving are evoked to understand the differences across gender and countries.

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INTRODUCTION La loi peut-elle conduire à l'injustice ? Depuis l'antiquité, les rapports entre la loi et la justice constituent un thème fondamental de la pensée occidentale. En témoigne notamment la récurrence, à travers les siècles, du débat entre jusnaturalistes -qui postulent l'existence et la prééminence d'un droit naturel, toujours conforme à l'équité - et positivistes - pour lesquels la question du caractère juste ou injuste d'une loi valablement édictée n'est d'aucune pertinence. Cette préoccupation n'atteint toutefois pas aux seules réflexions spéculatives des théoriciens du droit. La plupart des législateurs ont cherché à fonder leurs normes sur l'équité, et à les conformer ainsi à l'idée de justice qui prévalait lors de leur adoption. La question peut se poser toutefois de l'existence possible d'une «loi juste dans l'abstrait, antérieurement à toute concrétisation. N'est-ce pas au contraire le sort de toute norme que d'échapper à son auteur et de voir son sens précisé, complété, voire modifié au travers des multiples cas qu'elle est appelée à régler? Aristote avait déjà mis en évidence l'imperfection inhérente à toute norme générale. Aucun législateur ne peut en effet envisager la multiplicité des hypothèses dans lesquelles les particuliers invoqueront la norme par lui édictée. Il arrive dès lors que le juge soit confronté à une prétention qui paraît régulièrement fondée en droit, mais dont la mise en oeuvre en l'espèce aboutit à une injustice. Pour cette raison, la plupart des systèmes juridiques ont développé des moyens destinés à éviter que l'application du droit conduise à un résultat injuste que ri avait pas envisagé l'auteur de la norme. Cette étude se propose tout d'abord d'examiner la solution du droit romain. Celui-ci a en effet développé, à travers l'exceptio doli, une institution qui permet au magistrat de paralyser les effets d'une prétention, pourtant parfaitement fondée en droit civil. Après un examen du contexte de son apparition (titre I), il s'agira d'en étudier - en tentant de les classifier - les nombreux cas d'application (titre II), avant de proposer une définition générale de l'institution (titre III). Seront ensuite décrites les principales étapes de l'évolution de l'exceptio doli, à partir de la fin de l'Empire romain d'Occident, jusqu'au XXe siècle de notre ère (titre IV). Codifié au début du XXe siècle, le droit privé suisse a certes concrétisé, par nombre de dispositions particulières, les divers cas d'application de l'exceptio doli ; il connaît cependant une institution - l'interdiction de l'abus de droit (art. 2 al. 2 CC) - dont la fonction paraît très analogue à celle de l'antique exception de dol (titre V). Il conviendra d'examiner les hypothèses d'abus de droit qui correspondent aux cas d'application de l'exceptio doli (titre VI) et celles qui doivent leur origine à d'autres institutions (titre VII). On aura ainsi mis en évidence l'étendue du lien de filiation entre l'antique exceptio doli et l'interdiction de l'abus de droit en droit suisse, deux institutions vouées à la concrétisation de l'idée de justice lors de la mise en oeuvre des normes.

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While cell sorting usually relies on cell-surface protein markers, molecular beacons (MBs) offer the potential to sort cells based on the presence of any expressed mRNA and in principle could be extremely useful to sort rare cell populations from primary isolates. We show here how stem cells can be purified from mixed cell populations by sorting based on MBs. Specifically, we designed molecular beacons targeting Sox2, a well-known stem cell marker for murine embryonic (mES) and neural stem cells (NSC). One of our designed molecular beacons displayed an increase in fluorescence compared to a nonspecific molecular beacon both in vitro and in vivo when tested in mES and NSCs. We sorted Sox2-MB(+)SSEA1(+) cells from a mixed population of 4-day retinoic acid-treated mES cells and effectively isolated live undifferentiated stem cells. Additionally, Sox2-MB(+) cells isolated from primary mouse brains were sorted and generated neurospheres with higher efficiency than Sox2-MB(-) cells. These results demonstrate the utility of MBs for stem cell sorting in an mRNA-specific manner.

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Cette thèse analyse la défense du paradis fiscal suisse dans les négociations internationales de l'entre-deux-guerres. Pour ce faire, elle s'appuie sur un très large panel de sources inédites, tirées des archives publiques suisses, britanniques, françaises, allemandes et belges, ainsi que sur une série d'archives du monde économique et d'organisations internationales. Ce travail tente, sur cette base, de retracer l'évolution des pourparlers fiscaux et d'identifier comment les dirigeants suisses sont parvenus à écarter en leur sein les premières pressions internationales qui surviennent après la Grande Guerre à l'encontre des pratiques fiscales helvétiques. Sur fond de fuites massives d'avoirs européens en direction du refuge suisse, ces démarches étrangères à l'encontre du secret bancaire sont menées aussi bien au niveau multilatéral, au sein des débats fiscaux de la Société des Nations, que sur le plan bilatéral, à l'intérieur des négociations interétatiques pour la conclusion de conventions de double imposition et d'assistance fiscale. Pourtant, les tentatives de la part des gouvernements européens d'amorcer une coopération contre l'évasion fiscale avec leur homologue suisse échouent constamment durant l'entre-deux-guerres : non seulement aucune mesure de collaboration internationale n'est adoptée par la Confédération, mais les dirigeants helvétiques parviennent encore à obtenir dans les négociations des avantages fiscaux pour les capitaux qui sont exportés depuis la Suisse ou qui transitent par son entremise. En clair, bien loin d'être amoindrie, la compétitivité fiscale du centre économique suisse sort renforcée des discussions internationales de l'entre-deux-guerres. La thèse avance à la fois des facteurs endogènes et exogènes à la politique suisse pour expliquer cette réussite a priori surprenante dans un contexte de crise financière et monétaire aiguë. A l'intérieur de la Confédération, la grande cohésion des élites suisses facilite la défense extérieure de la compétitivité fiscale. En raison de l'anémie de l'administration fiscale fédérale, du conservatisme du gouvernement ou encore de l'interpénétration du patronat industriel et bancaire helvétique, les décideurs s'accordent presque unanimement sur le primat à une protection rigoureuse du secret bancaire. En outre, corollaire de l'afflux de capitaux en Suisse, la place financière helvétique dispose de différentes armes économiques qu'elle peut faire valoir pour défendre ses intérêts face aux gouvernements étrangers. Mais c'est surtout la conjonction de trois facteurs exogènes au contexte suisse qui a favorisé la position helvétique au sein des négociations fiscales internationales. Premièrement, après la guerre, le climat anti-fiscal qui prédomine au sein d'une large frange des élites occidentales incite les gouvernements étrangers à faire preuve d'une grande tolérance à l'égard du havre fiscal suisse. Deuxièmement, en raison de leur sous-développement, les administrations fiscales européennes n'ont pas un pouvoir suffisant pour contrecarrer la politique suisse. Troisièmement, les milieux industriels et financiers étrangers tendent à appuyer les stratégies de défense du paradis fiscal suisse, soit parce qu'ils usent eux-mêmes de ses services, soit parce que, avec la pression à la baisse qu'il engendre sur les systèmes fiscaux des autres pays, l'îlot libéral helvétique participe au démantèlement de la fiscalité progressive que ces milieux appellent de leur voeu.

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The retention of previous donors and the recruitment of new donors is a serious challenge for many blood donation services in their effort to prevent blood shortages. More and more services make use of some sort of donation incentives. However, the use of (material) incentives to motivate blood donors is fiercely controversial and there is a longstanding (ethical) debate about whether it should be allowed that donors receive material rewards. Interestingly, this debate is dealt with in almost complete absence of systematic empirical evidence on the effectiveness of material incentives in encouraging people to donate. In this paper, we argue that the discussion on what is ethical in motivating blood donors should be enriched with empirical evidence based on field experiments. We confront the Titmuss controversy with recent results from an experiment administering lottery tickets as a motivation device. Moreover, we take up a neglected phenomenon in the study of blood donors: many non-donors are not principally against donating blood they have just never made up their mind about becoming active blood donors. We propose active decisions as a mechanism to transform latent prosocial preferences into actual prosocial behavior.

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Summary : International comparisons in the area of victimization, particularly in the field of violence against women, are fraught with methodological problems that previous research has not systematically addressed, and whose answer does not seem to be agreed up~n. For obvious logistic and financial reasons, international studies on violence against women (i.e. studies that administer the same instrument in different countries). are seldom; therefore, researchers are bound to resort to secondary comparisons. Many studies simply juxtapose their results to the ones of previous wòrk or to findings obtained in different contexts, in order to offer an allegedly comparative perspective to their conclusions. If, most of the time, researchers indicate the methodological limitations of a direct comparison, it is not rare that these do not result in concrete methodological controls. Yet, many studies have shown the influence of surveys methodological parameters on findings, listing recommendations fora «best practice» of research. Although, over the past decades, violence against women surveys have become more and more similar -tending towards a sort of uniformization that could be interpreted as a passive consensus -these instruments retain more or less subtle differences that are still susceptible to influence the validity of a comparison. Yet, only a small number of studies have directly worked on the comparability of violence against women data, striving to control the methodological parameters of the surveys in order to guarantee the validity of their comparisons. The goal of this work is to compare data from two national surveys on violence against women: the Swiss component of the International Violence Against Women Survey [CH-IVAWS] and the National Violence Against Women Survey [NVAWS] administered in the United States. The choice of these studies certainly ensues from the author's affiliations; however, it is far from being trivial. Indeed, the criminological field currently endows American and Anglo-Saxon literature with a predominant space, compelling researchers from other countries to almost do the splits to interpret their results in the light of previous work or to develop effective interventions in their own context. Turning to hypotheses or concepts developed in a specific framework inevitably raises the issue of their applicability to another context, i.e. the Swiss context, if not at least European. This problematic then takes on an interest that goes beyond the particular topic of violence against women, adding to its relevance. This work articulates around three axes. First, it shows the way survey characteristics influence estimates. The comparability of the nature of the CH-IVAWS and NVAWS, their sampling design and the characteristics of their administration are discussed. The definitions used, the operationalization of variables based on comparable items, the control of reference periods, as well as the nature of the victim-offender relationship are included among controlled factors. This study establishes content validity within and across studies, presenting a systematic process destined to maximize the comparability of secondary data. Implications of the process are illustrated with the successive presentation of comparable and non-comparable operationalizations of computed variables. Measuring violence against. women in Switzerland and the United-States, this work compares the prevalence of different forms (threats, physical violence and sexual violence) and types of violence (partner and nonpartner violence). Second, it endeavors to analyze concepts of multivictimization (i.e. experiencing different forms of victimization), repeat victimization (i.e. experiencing the same form of violence more than once), and revictimization (i.e. the link between childhood and adulthood victimization) in a comparative -and comparable -approach. Third, aiming at understanding why partner violence appears higher in the United States, while victims of nonpartners are more frequent in Switzerland, as well as in other European countries, different victimization correlates are examined. This research contributes to a better understanding of the relevance of controlling methodological parameters in comparisons across studies, as it illustrates, systematically, the imposed controls and their implications on quantitative data. Moreover, it details how ignoring these parameters might lead to erroneous conclusions, statistically as well as theoretically. The conclusion of the study puts into a wider perspective the discussion of differences and similarities of violence against women in Switzerland and the United States, and integrates recommendations as to the relevance and validity of international comparisons, whatever the'field they are conducted in. Résumé: Les comparaisons internationales dans le domaine de la victimisation, et plus particulièrement en ce qui concerne les violences envers les femmes, se caractérisent par des problèmes méthodologiques que les recherches antérieures n'ont pas systématiquement adressés, et dont la réponse ne semble pas connaître de consensus. Pour des raisons logistiques et financières évidentes, les études internationales sur les violences envers les femmes (c.-à-d. les études utilisant un même instrument dans différents pays) sont rares, aussi les chercheurs sont-ils contraints de se tourner vers des comparaisons secondaires. Beaucoup de recherches juxtaposent alors simplement leurs résultats à ceux de travaux antérieurs ou à des résultats obtenus dans d'autres contextes, afin d'offrir à leurs conclusions une perspective prétendument comparative. Si, le plus souvent, les auteurs indiquent les limites méthodologiques d'une comparaison directe, il est fréquent que ces dernières ne se traduisent pas par des contrôles méthodologiques concrets. Et pourtant, quantité de travaux ont mis en évidence l'influence des paramètres méthodologiques des enquêtes sur les résultats obtenus, érigeant des listes de recommandations pour une «meilleure pratique» de la recherche. Bien que, ces dernières décennies, les sondages sur les violences envers les femmes soient devenus de plus en plus similaires -tendant, vers une certaine uniformisation que l'on peut interpréter comme un consensus passif-, il n'en demeure pas moins que ces instruments possèdent des différences plus ou moins subtiles, mais toujours susceptibles d'influencer la validité d'une comparaison. Pourtant, seules quelques recherches ont directement travaillé sur la comparabilité des données sur les violences envers les femmes, ayant à coeur de contrôler les paramètres méthodologiques des études utilisées afin de garantir la validité de leurs comparaisons. L'objectif de ce travail est la comparaison des données de deux sondages nationaux sur les violences envers les femmes: le composant suisse de l'International Violence Against Women Survey [CHIVAWSj et le National Violence Against Women Survey [NVAWS) administré aux États-Unis. Le choix de ces deux études découle certes des affiliations de l'auteure, cependant il est loin d'être anodin. Le champ criminologique actuel confère, en effet, une place prépondérante à la littérature américaine et anglo-saxonne, contraignant ainsi les chercheurs d'autres pays à un exercice proche du grand écart pour interpréter leurs résultats à la lumière des travaux antérieurs ou développer des interventions efficaces dans leur propre contexte. Le fait de recourir à des hypothèses et des concepts développés dans un cadre spécifique pose inévitablement la question de leur applicabilité à un autre contexte, soit ici le contexte suisse, sinon du moins européen. Cette problématique revêt alors un intérêt qui dépasse la thématique spécifique des violences envers les femmes, ce qui ajoute à sa pertinence. Ce travail s'articule autour de trois axes. Premièrement, il met en évidence la manière dont les caractéristiques d'un sondage influencent les estimations qui en découlent. La comparabilité de la nature du CH-IVAWS et du NVAWS, de leur processus d'échantillonnage et des caractéristiques de leur administration est discutée. Les définitions utilisées, l'opérationnalisation des variables sur la base d'items comparables, le contrôle des périodes de référence, ainsi que la nature de la relation victime-auteur figurent également parmi les facteurs contrôlés. Ce travail établit ainsi la validité de contenu intra- et inter-études, offrant un processus systématique destiné à maximiser la comparabilité des données secondaires. Les implications de cette démarche sont illustrées avec la présentation successive d'opérationnalisations comparables et non-comparables des variables construites. Mesurant les violences envers les femmes en Suisse et aux États-Unis, ce travail compare la prévalence de plusieurs formes (menaces, violences physiques et violences sexuelles) et types de violence (violences partenaires et non-partenaires). 11 s'attache également à analyser les concepts de multivictimisation (c.-à-d. le fait de subir plusieurs formes de victimisation), victimisation répétée (c.-à.-d. le fait de subir plusieurs incidents de même forme) et revictimisation (c.-à-d. le lien entre la victimisation dans l'enfance et à l'âge adulte) dans une approche comparative - et comparable. Dans un troisième temps, cherchant à comprendre pourquoi la violence des partenaires apparaît plus fréquente aux États-Unis, tandis que les victimes de non-partenaires sont plus nombreuses en Suisse, et dans d'autres pays européens, différents facteurs associés à la victimisation sont évalués. Cette recherche participe d'une meilleure compréhension de la pertinence du contrôle des paramètres méthodologiques dans les comparaisons entre études puisqu'elle illustre, pas à pas, les contrôles imposés et leurs effets sur les données quantitatives, et surtout comment l'ignorance de ces paramètres peut conduire à des conclusions erronées, tant statistiquement que théoriquement. La conclusion replace, dans un contexte plus large, la discussion des différences et des similitudes observées quant à la prévalence des violences envers les femmes en Suisse et aux États-Unis, et intègre des recommandations quant à la pertinence et à la validité des comparaisons internationales, cela quel que soit le domaine considéré.

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Nous développons la thèse selon laquelle la globalisation financière a conduit les États à transformer leur pratique de souveraineté, à adapter leur système de régulation et à redéfinir leur régime de citoyenneté non seulement afin de répondre aux contraintes de cette dynamique, mais aussi afin de poursuivre leurs propres objectifs politiques, définis en termes de quête de compétitivité. Dans ce contexte, la citoyenneté a évolué d'une relation (directe) entre autorités souveraines et citoyens, structurée autour d'un principe politique d'inclusion universelle, à une relation médiatisée par les marchés financiers, structurée autour d'un principe économique de compétitivité. Ce phénomène tend à être occulté par les approches en économie politique internationale (EPI) - réalisme, libéralisme, et structuralisme - qui n'intègrent pas le point de vue d'un acteur (le citoyen) qui sort du champ d'étude traditionnel de la discipline. Notre analyse entend ainsi contribuer à la réhabilitation du citoyen dans l'économie politique de la globalisation financière.

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SummaryCanonical Wnt signaling is crucial for embryonic development and the homeostasis of certain adult tissues such as the gut and the skin. The role of canonical Wnt signaling in hematopoiesis is still debated. The expression of a dominant-active β-catenin in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) enhances the self-renewal capacity of HSCs but is detrimental for long-term hematopoiesis. In contrast, loss of function experiments show that absence of β- and γ-catenin does not impair steady-state hematopoiesis. It has been argued that the inducible deletion of β-catenin using the IFN-responsive Mx promoter may somehow influence stem cell fate. Herein we used the constitutive deletion of β-catenin specifically in hematopoietic cells to show that the absence of β- catenin, as well as γ-catenin deletion, does not impair normal hematopoiesis and self-renewal capacity of HSCs.Dysregulation of canonical Wnt signaling is causal for several types of cancer, including colon carcinoma or breast cancer. Recently, it was found that Wnt signal transduction was upregulated in certain leukemias. Based on these data, we have investigated whether β- and γ-catenin play a role for the induction of leukemias by oncogenic BCR-ABL translocation product. We show that the induction of B-ALL (B cell acute lymphocytic leukemia) is strongly reduced in the absence of γ-catenin, while the induction of CML (chronic myeloid leukemia) occurs at a normal rate. In the combined absence of β- and γ-catenin the induction of both CML and B-ALL is essentially blocked. Consistent with these data others have found that β-catenin is essential for the induction of CML by BCR-ABL.Collectively, we find that β- and γ-catenin are dispensable for normal hematopoiesis but essential for the development of BCR-ABL induced leukemias. These findings suggest that the canonical Wnt pathway may represent a promising target for the therapy of leukemia.RésuméLa voie de signalisation canonique Wnt est essentielle pour le développement embryonnaire ainsi que l'homéostasie de certains tissus adultes, comme les intestins et la peau. Le rôle de la voie canonique Wnt pour l'hématopoïèse est encore incertain. D'un coté l'expression d'une forme active de β-catenine dans les cellules souches de la moelle augmente leur potentiel d'auto- renouvellement mais est préjudiciable pour l'hématopoïèse à long terme. Par contre, l'absence de β- et γ-catenine n'empêche pas le déroulement normal de l'hématopoïèse. La façon dont est supprimée β-catenine, en utilisant le promoteur IFN-inductible Mx, pourrait influencer le sort des cellules souches. Ici nous détruisons β-catenine spécifiquement dans les cellules hématopoïétiques de manière constitutive et montrons que, en combinaison avec l'absence de γ-catenine, l'absence de β-catenine n'affecte pas le déroulement normal de l'hématopoïèse et la capacité des cellules souches de la moelle à se renouveler.Plusieurs sortes de cancers, comme celui du colon ou du sein, sont parfois dus à une dérégulation de la voie canonique Wnt. Récemment, certaines leucémies ont présenté une activation du signal Wnt. A partir de ces données, nous avons examiné si β- et γ-catenine jouent un rôle dans l'induction des leucémies causées par le produit de translocation BCR-ABL. Nous avons montré que l'induction de la leucémie aiguë lymphoïde de cellules Β (LAL-B) est grandement diminuée en l'absence de γ-catenin, alors que l'induction de la leucémie myéloïde chronique (LMC) n'est pas affectée. En l'absence des deux catenines, l'induction des deux leucémies LAL-B et LMC est presque complètement bloquée. En confirmation de nos données, un autre groupe a montré que β-catenine est essentielle pour le développement de la LMC. Ensemble, ces données nous montrent que β- et γ-catenine ne sont pas nécessaires pour l'hématopoïèse normale, mais essentielle pour le développement des leucémies induites par BCR-ABL. Cela suggère que la voie de signalisation canonique Wnt est une cible prometteuse pour de futures thérapies.

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Cycling lymphocytes may express the enzyme telomerase which is involved in maintenance of telomere length and cell proliferation potential. In CD8(+) T cells freshly isolated from peripheral blood, we found that in vivo cycling cells expressed HLA-DR. Furthermore, CD28-positive cells are known to have longer telomeres than CD28-negative T cells. Therefore we used HLA-DR- and CD28-specific antibodies to sort CD8(+) T cells and measure telomerase activity ex vivo. Relatively high levels of telomerase activity were found in HLA-DR/CD28 double-positive cells. In contrast, HLA-DR-negative and CD28-negative cells had almost no telomerase activity. In summary, HLA-DR expression correlates with proliferation, and CD28 expression with proliferative potential. We have previously identified that ex vivo cytolytic CD8(+) T cells are CD56 (NCAM) positive. Here we show that HLA-DR(+) cells were rarely CD56(+) and vice versa. This demonstrates that telomerase-expressing and cytolytic CD8(+) T cells can be separated on the basis of the cell surface markers HLA-DR and CD56. Thus, activated CD8(+) T cells specialize and exert distinct functions correlating with surface molecule expression.

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Connectivity among demes in a metapopulation depends on both the landscape's and the focal organism's properties (including its mobility and cognitive abilities). Using individual-based simulations, we contrast the consequences of three different cognitive strategies on several measures of metapopulation connectivity. Model animals search suitable habitat patches while dispersing through a model landscape made of cells varying in size, shape, attractiveness and friction. In the blind strategy, the next cell is chosen randomly among the adjacent ones. In the near-sighted strategy, the choice depends on the relative attractiveness of these adjacent cells. In the far-sighted strategy, animals may additionally target suitable patches that appear within their perceptual range. Simulations show that the blind strategy provides the best overall connectivity, and results in balanced dispersal. The near-sighted strategy traps animals into corridors that reduce the number of potential targets, thereby fragmenting metapopulations in several local clusters of demes, and inducing sink-source dynamics. This sort of local trapping is somewhat prevented in the far-sighted strategy. The colonization success of strategies depends highly on initial energy reserves: blind does best when energy is high, near-sighted wins at intermediate levels, and far-sighted outcompetes its rivals at low energy reserves. We also expect strong effects in terms of metapopulation genetics: the blind strategy generates a migrant-pool mode of dispersal that should erase local structures. By contrast, near- and far-sighted strategies generate a propagule-pool mode of dispersal and source-sink behavior that should boost structures (high genetic variance among- and low variance within local clusters of demes), particularly if metapopulation dynamics is also affected by extinction-colonization processes. Our results thus point to important effects of the cognitive ability of dispersers on the connectivity, dynamics and genetics of metapopulations.

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Cette thèse décrit de quelle manière les hommes travaillant dans les sciences de la vie durant la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle s'insèrent et jonglent au quotidien dans l'univers de la librairie d'Ancien Régime. Plus précisément dans celui que l'historien du livre Robert Damton a défini le circuit de la communication. Un circuit complexe qui va de l'auteur à l'éditeur, en passant par l'imprimeur, le transporteur, le libraire, le lecteur ou encore par le relieur et le copiste.Marchander le prix d'une page manuscrite avec un éditeur, s'assurer de rester au courant des nouveautés de la librairie, prendre des notes, trouver un bon copiste, juger de la qualité d'un ouvrage ou d'une traduction, se protéger des contrefaçons, se créer un fonds de bibliothèque: voici le quotidien du savant au travail abordé dans cette thèse dont le but est de comprendre de quelle manière fonctionnent les mécanismes d'acquisition, de mise en forme et de mise en circulation du savoir - bref, les coulisses de la communication scientifique. Cela à une période où les hommes de science sont de plus en plus confrontés à un "déluge" de nouvelles publications en toutes langues. La seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle, correspond en fait à celui qu'a été défini par les historiens du livre un "apogée" de l'imprimé scientifique. Caractérisée par un changement dans le milieu de la production imprimée, cette seconde partie du siècle marque une césure, une situation nouvelle à laquelle le savant doit s'adapter afin de ne pas être dépassé par les événements et afin de pouvoir tirer le plus large bénéfice de toutes les formes d'expression et d'intervention qui sont mises à sa disposition. Afin d'analyser les stratégies mises en place par les savants pour gérer la masse de l'information et afin de reconstruire les pratiques ordinaires du travail savant, pratiques qui accompagnent le savoir dans son devenir et sont susceptible de l'influencer, cette thèse s'appuie sur la riche correspondance que le médecin lausannois Samuel Auguste Tissot et son collègue bernois Albrecht von Haller, deux savants et écrivains de renom parmi les plus célèbres des Lumières helvétiques, échangent pendant plus de vingt ans. Ce couple pourrait être défini comme antinomique. Le représentant d'une culture humaniste, formé à l'école iatromécanique de Leyde et insatiable lecteur qu'est Haller et un partisan de la vulgarisation, formé au vitalisme à Montpellier tel que Tissot, d'une génération plus jeune, se sont démontrés avoir une conception parfois différente de ce qu'est un livre de science, en particulier un livre de médecine, de la forme qu'il doit avoir, du prix auquel il doit être vendu ou encore de la langue dans laquelle il doit être écrit. L'un, Haller, médecin de cabinet et professeur à Gôttingen pendant dix-sept ans, l'autre, Tissot, praticien et médecin des pauvres ayant enseigné seulement quatre semestres à Pavie, pratiquent et conçoivent en partie différemment la communication du savoir scientifique et le public de celle-ci. L'étude prend également en compte les lettres échangées avec un réseau d'amis communs, surtout le médecin argovien Johann Georg Zimmermann et le naturaliste genevois Charles Bonnet. Les correspondances des professionnels du livre représentent un autre pan incontournable du corpus documentaire de la thèse. C'est grâce à ces hommes que le texte du savant sort du cabinet et prend sa forme matérielle, voire il acquiert du sens. Des documents tels des essais ou des notes de lecture et les pièces liminaires des livres (préfaces, dédicaces, avis aux lecteurs, notes) se sont aussi révélées être des documents précieux: ils témoignent des pratiques de travail des savants et ils renseignent aussi bien sur les intentions poursuivies par l'auteur que sur les pratiques d'édition, contrefaçon et traduction.Basée sur une démarche micro-historique qui croise l'histoire sociale des sciences et l'histoire sociale du livre à la française, cette thèse s'articule autour de 5 chapitres et un intermède. La disposition des parties suit en quelques sortes les étapes du travail savant: lecture, écriture, mise sous presse, mise en circulation, réception.

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Ubiquitination, deubiquitination, and the formation of specific ubiquitin chain topologies have been implicated in various cellular processes. Little is known, however, about the role of ubiquitin in the development of cellular organelles. Here, we identify and characterize the deubiquitinating enzyme AMSH3 from Arabidopsis thaliana. AMSH3 hydrolyzes K48- and K63-linked ubiquitin chains in vitro and accumulates both ubiquitin chain types in vivo. amsh3 mutants fail to form a central lytic vacuole, accumulate autophagosomes, and mis-sort vacuolar protein cargo to the intercellular space. Furthermore, AMSH3 is required for efficient endocytosis of the styryl dye FM4-64 and the auxin efflux facilitator PIN2. We thus present evidence for a role of deubiquitination in intracellular trafficking and vacuole biogenesis.

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Combinatorial optimization involves finding an optimal solution in a finite set of options; many everyday life problems are of this kind. However, the number of options grows exponentially with the size of the problem, such that an exhaustive search for the best solution is practically infeasible beyond a certain problem size. When efficient algorithms are not available, a practical approach to obtain an approximate solution to the problem at hand, is to start with an educated guess and gradually refine it until we have a good-enough solution. Roughly speaking, this is how local search heuristics work. These stochastic algorithms navigate the problem search space by iteratively turning the current solution into new candidate solutions, guiding the search towards better solutions. The search performance, therefore, depends on structural aspects of the search space, which in turn depend on the move operator being used to modify solutions. A common way to characterize the search space of a problem is through the study of its fitness landscape, a mathematical object comprising the space of all possible solutions, their value with respect to the optimization objective, and a relationship of neighborhood defined by the move operator. The landscape metaphor is used to explain the search dynamics as a sort of potential function. The concept is indeed similar to that of potential energy surfaces in physical chemistry. Borrowing ideas from that field, we propose to extend to combinatorial landscapes the notion of the inherent network formed by energy minima in energy landscapes. In our case, energy minima are the local optima of the combinatorial problem, and we explore several definitions for the network edges. At first, we perform an exhaustive sampling of local optima basins of attraction, and define weighted transitions between basins by accounting for all the possible ways of crossing the basins frontier via one random move. Then, we reduce the computational burden by only counting the chances of escaping a given basin via random kick moves that start at the local optimum. Finally, we approximate network edges from the search trajectory of simple search heuristics, mining the frequency and inter-arrival time with which the heuristic visits local optima. Through these methodologies, we build a weighted directed graph that provides a synthetic view of the whole landscape, and that we can characterize using the tools of complex networks science. We argue that the network characterization can advance our understanding of the structural and dynamical properties of hard combinatorial landscapes. We apply our approach to prototypical problems such as the Quadratic Assignment Problem, the NK model of rugged landscapes, and the Permutation Flow-shop Scheduling Problem. We show that some network metrics can differentiate problem classes, correlate with problem non-linearity, and predict problem hardness as measured from the performances of trajectory-based local search heuristics.

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Summary This dissertation explores how stakeholder dialogue influences corporate processes, and speculates about the potential of this phenomenon - particularly with actors, like non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other representatives of civil society, which have received growing attention against a backdrop of increasing globalisation and which have often been cast in an adversarial light by firms - as a source of teaming and a spark for innovation in the firm. The study is set within the context of the introduction of genetically-modified organisms (GMOs) in Europe. Its significance lies in the fact that scientific developments and new technologies are being generated at an unprecedented rate in an era where civil society is becoming more informed, more reflexive, and more active in facilitating or blocking such new developments, which could have the potential to trigger widespread changes in economies, attitudes, and lifestyles, and address global problems like poverty, hunger, climate change, and environmental degradation. In the 1990s, companies using biotechnology to develop and offer novel products began to experience increasing pressure from civil society to disclose information about the risks associated with the use of biotechnology and GMOs, in particular. Although no harmful effects for humans or the environment have been factually demonstrated even to date (2008), this technology remains highly-contested and its introduction in Europe catalysed major companies to invest significant financial and human resources in stakeholder dialogue. A relatively new phenomenon at the time, with little theoretical backing, dialogue was seen to reflect a move towards greater engagement with stakeholders, commonly defined as those "individuals or groups with which. business interacts who have a 'stake', or vested interest in the firm" (Carroll, 1993:22) with whom firms are seen to be inextricably embedded (Andriof & Waddock, 2002). Regarding the organisation of this dissertation, Chapter 1 (Introduction) describes the context of the study, elaborates its significance for academics and business practitioners as an empirical work embedded in a sector at the heart of the debate on corporate social responsibility (CSR). Chapter 2 (Literature Review) traces the roots and evolution of CSR, drawing on Stakeholder Theory, Institutional Theory, Resource Dependence Theory, and Organisational Learning to establish what has already been developed in the literature regarding the stakeholder concept, motivations for engagement with stakeholders, the corporate response to external constituencies, and outcomes for the firm in terms of organisational learning and change. I used this review of the literature to guide my inquiry and to develop the key constructs through which I viewed the empirical data that was gathered. In this respect, concepts related to how the firm views itself (as a victim, follower, leader), how stakeholders are viewed (as a source of pressure and/or threat; as an asset: current and future), corporate responses (in the form of buffering, bridging, boundary redefinition), and types of organisational teaming (single-loop, double-loop, triple-loop) and change (first order, second order, third order) were particularly important in building the key constructs of the conceptual model that emerged from the analysis of the data. Chapter 3 (Methodology) describes the methodology that was used to conduct the study, affirms the appropriateness of the case study method in addressing the research question, and describes the procedures for collecting and analysing the data. Data collection took place in two phases -extending from August 1999 to October 2000, and from May to December 2001, which functioned as `snapshots' in time of the three companies under study. The data was systematically analysed and coded using ATLAS/ti, a qualitative data analysis tool, which enabled me to sort, organise, and reduce the data into a manageable form. Chapter 4 (Data Analysis) contains the three cases that were developed (anonymised as Pioneer, Helvetica, and Viking). Each case is presented in its entirety (constituting a `within case' analysis), followed by a 'cross-case' analysis, backed up by extensive verbatim evidence. Chapter 5 presents the research findings, outlines the study's limitations, describes managerial implications, and offers suggestions for where more research could elaborate the conceptual model developed through this study, as well as suggestions for additional research in areas where managerial implications were outlined. References and Appendices are included at the end. This dissertation results in the construction and description of a conceptual model, grounded in the empirical data and tied to existing literature, which portrays a set of elements and relationships deemed important for understanding the impact of stakeholder engagement for firms in terms of organisational learning and change. This model suggests that corporate perceptions about the nature of stakeholder influence the perceived value of stakeholder contributions. When stakeholders are primarily viewed as a source of pressure or threat, firms tend to adopt a reactive/defensive posture in an effort to manage stakeholders and protect the firm from sources of outside pressure -behaviour consistent with Resource Dependence Theory, which suggests that firms try to get control over extemal threats by focussing on the relevant stakeholders on whom they depend for critical resources, and try to reverse the control potentially exerted by extemal constituencies by trying to influence and manipulate these valuable stakeholders. In situations where stakeholders are viewed as a current strategic asset, firms tend to adopt a proactive/offensive posture in an effort to tap stakeholder contributions and connect the organisation to its environment - behaviour consistent with Institutional Theory, which suggests that firms try to ensure the continuing license to operate by internalising external expectations. In instances where stakeholders are viewed as a source of future value, firms tend to adopt an interactive/innovative posture in an effort to reduce or widen the embedded system and bring stakeholders into systems of innovation and feedback -behaviour consistent with the literature on Organisational Learning, which suggests that firms can learn how to optimize their performance as they develop systems and structures that are more adaptable and responsive to change The conceptual model moreover suggests that the perceived value of stakeholder contribution drives corporate aims for engagement, which can be usefully categorised as dialogue intentions spanning a continuum running from low-level to high-level to very-high level. This study suggests that activities aimed at disarming critical stakeholders (`manipulation') providing guidance and correcting misinformation (`education'), being transparent about corporate activities and policies (`information'), alleviating stakeholder concerns (`placation'), and accessing stakeholder opinion ('consultation') represent low-level dialogue intentions and are experienced by stakeholders as asymmetrical, persuasive, compliance-gaining activities that are not in line with `true' dialogue. This study also finds evidence that activities aimed at redistributing power ('partnership'), involving stakeholders in internal corporate processes (`participation'), and demonstrating corporate responsibility (`stewardship') reflect high-level dialogue intentions. This study additionally finds evidence that building and sustaining high-quality, trusted relationships which can meaningfully influence organisational policies incline a firm towards the type of interactive, proactive processes that underpin the development of sustainable corporate strategies. Dialogue intentions are related to type of corporate response: low-level intentions can lead to buffering strategies; high-level intentions can underpin bridging strategies; very high-level intentions can incline a firm towards boundary redefinition. The nature of corporate response (which encapsulates a firm's posture towards stakeholders, demonstrated by the level of dialogue intention and the firm's strategy for dealing with stakeholders) favours the type of learning and change experienced by the organisation. This study indicates that buffering strategies, where the firm attempts to protect itself against external influences and cant' out its existing strategy, typically lead to single-loop learning, whereby the firm teams how to perform better within its existing paradigm and at most, improves the performance of the established system - an outcome associated with first-order change. Bridging responses, where the firm adapts organisational activities to meet external expectations, typically leads a firm to acquire new behavioural capacities characteristic of double-loop learning, whereby insights and understanding are uncovered that are fundamentally different from existing knowledge and where stakeholders are brought into problem-solving conversations that enable them to influence corporate decision-making to address shortcomings in the system - an outcome associated with second-order change. Boundary redefinition suggests that the firm engages in triple-loop learning, where the firm changes relations with stakeholders in profound ways, considers problems from a whole-system perspective, examining the deep structures that sustain the system, producing innovation to address chronic problems and develop new opportunities - an outcome associated with third-order change. This study supports earlier theoretical and empirical studies {e.g. Weick's (1979, 1985) work on self-enactment; Maitlis & Lawrence's (2007) and Maitlis' (2005) work and Weick et al's (2005) work on sensegiving and sensemaking in organisations; Brickson's (2005, 2007) and Scott & Lane's (2000) work on organisational identity orientation}, which indicate that corporate self-perception is a key underlying factor driving the dynamics of organisational teaming and change. Such theorizing has important implications for managerial practice; namely, that a company which perceives itself as a 'victim' may be highly inclined to view stakeholders as a source of negative influence, and would therefore be potentially unable to benefit from the positive influence of engagement. Such a selfperception can blind the firm from seeing stakeholders in a more positive, contributing light, which suggests that such firms may not be inclined to embrace external sources of innovation and teaming, as they are focussed on protecting the firm against disturbing environmental influences (through buffering), and remain more likely to perform better within an existing paradigm (single-loop teaming). By contrast, a company that perceives itself as a 'leader' may be highly inclined to view stakeholders as a source of positive influence. On the downside, such a firm might have difficulty distinguishing when stakeholder contributions are less pertinent as it is deliberately more open to elements in operating environment (including stakeholders) as potential sources of learning and change, as the firm is oriented towards creating space for fundamental change (through boundary redefinition), opening issues to entirely new ways of thinking and addressing issues from whole-system perspective. A significant implication of this study is that potentially only those companies who see themselves as a leader are ultimately able to tap the innovation potential of stakeholder dialogue.