Creatine deficiency syndomes : a new model of partial GAMT deficiency affecting brain cell development

Les syndromes de déficiences cérébrales en créatine (CCDS) sont dus à des mutations dans les gènes GATM et G AMT (codant pour les enzymes AGAT et G AMT de la voie de synthèse de créatine) ainsi que SLC6A8 (transporteur de créatine), et génèrent une absence ou une très forte baisse de créatine (Cr) dans le cerveau, mesurée par spectroscopic de résonance magnétique. Les patients CCDS développent des handicaps neurologiques sévères. Les patients AGAT et GAMT peuvent être traités avec des doses importantes de Cr, mais gardent dans la plupart des cas des séquelles neurologiques irréversibles. Aucun traitement efficace n'existe à ce jour pour la déficience en SLC6A8. Bien que de nombreux modèles aient été développés pour comprendre la Cr cérébrale en conditions physiologiques, les pathomécanismes des CCDS ne sont pas encore compris. Des souris transgéniques pour les gènes Gatm, Gamt et Slc6a8 ont été générées, mais elles ne miment que partiellement la pathologie humaine. Parmi les CCDS, la déficience en GAMT est la plus sévère, en raison de l'accumulation cérébrale de l'intermédiaire guanidinoacétate (GAA). Alors que la toxicité cérébrale du GAA a été étudiée par exposition directe au GAA d'animaux adultes sains, les mécanismes de la toxicité du GAA en condition de déficience en GAMT dans le cerveau en développement sont encore inconnus. Le but de ce projet était donc de développer un modèle de déficience en GAMT dans des cultures 3D primaires de cellules nerveuses de rat en agrégats par knock-down du gène GAMT, en utilisant un virus adéno-associé (AAV) induisant le mécanisme d'interférence à l'ARN (RNAi). Le virus scAAV2, à la multiplicité d'infection de 1000, s'est révélé le plus efficace pour transduire tous les types de cellules nerveuses des cultures (neurones, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes), et générer un knock-down maximal de la protéine GAMT de 85% (jour in vitro 18). Cette déficience partielle en GAMT s'est révélée insuffisante pour générer une déficience en Cr, mais a causé l'accumulation attendue de GAA, à des doses comparables aux niveaux observés dans le LCR des patients GAMT. Le GAA a induit une croissance axonale anarchique accompagnée d'une baisse de l'apoptose naturelle, suivis par une induction tardive de mort cellulaire non-apoptotique. Le co-traitement par la Cr a prévenu tous les effets toxiques du GAA. Ce travail montre que l'accumulation de GAA en absence de déficience en Cr est suffisante pour affecter le développement du tissu nerveux, et suggère que des formes de déficiences en GAMT supplémentaires, ne présentant pas de déficiences en Cr, pourraient être découvertes par mesure du GAA, en particulier à travers les programmes récemment proposés de dépistage néonatal de la déficience en GAMT. -- Cerebral creatine deficiency syndromes (CCDS) are caused by mutations in the genes GATM and GAMT (respectively coding for the two enzymes of the creatine synthetic pathway, AGAT and GAMT) as well as SLC6A8 (creatine transporter), and lead to the absence or very strong decrease of creatine (Cr) in the brain when measured by magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Affected patients show severe neurological impairments. While AGAT and GAMT deficient patients can be treated with high dosages of Cr, most remain with irreversible brain sequelae. No treatment has been successful so far for SLC6A8 deficiency. While many models have helped understanding the cerebral Cr pathways in physiological conditions, the pathomechanisms underlying CCDS are yet to be elucidated. Transgenic mice carrying mutations in the Gatm, Gamt and Slc6a8 genes have been developed, but only partially mimic the human pathology. Among CCDS, GAMT deficiency is the most severe, due to the CNS accumulation of the guanidinoacetate (GAA) intermediate. While brain toxicity of GAA has been explored through direct GAA exposure of adult healthy animals, the mechanisms underlying GAA toxicity in GAMT deficiency conditions on the developing CNS are yet unknown. The aim of this project was thus to develop and characterize a GAMT deficiency model in developing brain cells by gene knockdown, by adeno-associated virus (AAV)-driven RNA interference (RNAi) in rat 3D organotypic primary brain cell cultures in aggregates. scAAV2 with a multiplicity of infection of 1000 was shown as the most efficient serotype, was able to transduce all brain cell types (neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes) and to induce a maximal GAMT protein knockdown of 85% (day in vitro 18). Metabolite analysis showed that partial GAMT knockdown was insufficient to induce Cr deficiency but generated the awaited GAA accumulation at concentrations comparable to the levels observed in cerebrospinal fluid of GAMT-deficient patients. Accumulated GAA induced axonal hypersprouting paralleled with inhibition of natural apoptosis, followed by a later induction in non-apoptotic cell death. Cr supplementation led to the prevention of all GAA-induced toxic effects. This work shows that GAA accumulation without Cr deficiency is sufficient to affect CNS development, and suggests that additional partial GAMT deficiencies, which may not show the classical brain Cr deficiency, may be discovered through GAA measurement including by recently proposed neonatal screening programs for GAMT deficiency.

Improving anterior deltoid activity in a musculoskeletal shoulder model - an analysis of the torque-feasible space at the sternoclavicular joint.

Modelling the shoulder's musculature is challenging given its mechanical and geometric complexity. The use of the ideal fibre model to represent a muscle's line of action cannot always faithfully represent the mechanical effect of each muscle, leading to considerable differences between model-estimated and in vivo measured muscle activity. While the musculo-tendon force coordination problem has been extensively analysed in terms of the cost function, only few works have investigated the existence and sensitivity of solutions to fibre topology. The goal of this paper is to present an analysis of the solution set using the concepts of torque-feasible space (TFS) and wrench-feasible space (WFS) from cable-driven robotics. A shoulder model is presented and a simple musculo-tendon force coordination problem is defined. The ideal fibre model for representing muscles is reviewed and the TFS and WFS are defined, leading to the necessary and sufficient conditions for the existence of a solution. The shoulder model's TFS is analysed to explain the lack of anterior deltoid (DLTa) activity. Based on the analysis, a modification of the model's muscle fibre geometry is proposed. The performance with and without the modification is assessed by solving the musculo-tendon force coordination problem for quasi-static abduction in the scapular plane. After the proposed modification, the DLTa reaches 20% of activation.

Parallel declines in species and genetic diversity driven by anthropogenic disturbance: a multispecies approach in a French Atlantic dune system.

Numerous studies assess the correlation between genetic and species diversities, but the processes underlying the observed patterns have only received limited attention. For instance, varying levels of habitat disturbance across a region may locally reduce both diversities due to extinctions, and increased genetic drift during population bottlenecks and founder events. We investigated the regional distribution of genetic and species diversities of a coastal sand dune plant community along 240 kilometers of coastline with the aim to test for a correlation between the two diversity levels. We further quantify and tease apart the respective contributions of natural and anthropogenic disturbance factors to the observed patterns. We detected significant positive correlation between both variables. We further revealed a negative impact of urbanization: Sites with a high amount of recreational infrastructure within 10 km coastline had significantly lowered genetic and species diversities. On the other hand, a measure of natural habitat disturbance had no effect. This study shows that parallel variation of genetic and species diversities across a region can be traced back to human landscape alteration, provides arguments for a more resolute dune protection, and may help to design priority conservation areas.