Membrane potential dynamics of neocortical projection neurons driving target-specific signals.

Primary sensory cortex discriminates incoming sensory information and generates multiple processing streams toward other cortical areas. However, the underlying cellular mechanisms remain unknown. Here, by making whole-cell recordings in primary somatosensory barrel cortex (S1) of behaving mice, we show that S1 neurons projecting to primary motor cortex (M1) and those projecting to secondary somatosensory cortex (S2) have distinct intrinsic membrane properties and exhibit markedly different membrane potential dynamics during behavior. Passive tactile stimulation evoked faster and larger postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) in M1-projecting neurons, rapidly driving phasic action potential firing, well-suited for stimulus detection. Repetitive active touch evoked strongly depressing PSPs and only transient firing in M1-projecting neurons. In contrast, PSP summation allowed S2-projecting neurons to robustly signal sensory information accumulated during repetitive touch, useful for encoding object features. Thus, target-specific transformation of sensory-evoked synaptic potentials by S1 projection neurons generates functionally distinct output signals for sensorimotor coordination and sensory perception.

HARNESSING iNKT CELLS WITH RECOMBINANT CD1d FUSION PROTEINS TO REDIRECT INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY TO THE TUMOR

Les thérapies du cancer, comme la radiothérapie et la chimiothérapie, sont couramment utilisées mais ont de nombreux effets secondaires. Ces thérapies invasives pour le patient nécessitent d'être améliorées et de nombreuses avancées ont été faites afin d'adapter et de personnaliser le traitement du cancer. L'immunothérapie a pour but de renforcer le système immunitaire du patient et de le rediriger de manière spécifique contre la tumeur. Dans notre projet, nous activons les lymphocytes Invariant Natural Killer T (iNKT) afin de mettre en place une immunothérapie innovatrice contre le cancer. Les cellules iNKT sont une unique sous-population de lymphocytes T qui ont la particularité de réunir les propriétés de l'immunité innée ainsi qu'adaptative. En effet, les cellules iNKT expriment à leur surface des molécules présentes aussi sur les cellules tueuses NK, caractéristique de l'immunité innée, ainsi qu'un récepteur de cellules T (TCR) qui représente l'immunité adaptative. Les cellules iNKT reconnaissent avec leur TCR des antigènes présentés par la molécule CD1d. Les antigènes sont des protéines, des polysaccharides ou des lipides reconnus par les cellules du système immunitaire ou les anticorps pour engendrer une réponse immunitaire. Dans le cas des cellules iNKT, l'alpha-galactosylceramide (αGC) est un antigène lipidique fréquemment utilisé dans les études cliniques comme puissant activateur. Après l'activation des cellules iNKT avec l'αGC, celles-ci produisent abondamment et rapidement des cytokines. Ces cytokines sont des molécules agissant comme des signaux activateurs d'autres cellules du système immunitaire telles que les cellules NK et les lymphocytes T. Cependant, les cellules iNKT deviennent anergiques après un seul traitement avec l'αGC c'est à dire qu'elles ne peuvent plus être réactivées, ce qui limite leur utilisation dans l'immunothérapie du cancer. Dans notre groupe, Stirnemann et al ont publié une molécule recombinante innovante, composée de la molécule CD1d soluble et chargée avec le ligand αGC (αGC/sCD1d). Cette protéine est capable d'activer les cellules iNKT tout en évitant l'anergie. Dans le système immunitaire, les anticorps sont indispensables pour combattre une infection bactérienne ou virale. En effet, les anticorps ont la capacité de reconnaître et lier spécifiquement un antigène et permettent l'élimination de la cellule qui exprime cet antigène. Dans le domaine de l'immunothérapie, les anticorps sont utilisés afin de cibler des antigènes présentés seulement par la tumeur. Ce procédé permet de réduire efficacement les effets secondaires lors du traitement du cancer. Nous avons donc fusionné la protéine recombinante αGC/CD1d à un fragment d'anticorps qui reconnaît un antigène spécifique des cellules tumorales. Dans une étude préclinique, nous avons démontré que la protéine αGC/sCD1d avec un fragment d'anticorps dirigé contre la tumeur engendre une meilleure activation des cellules iNKT et entraîne un effet anti-tumeur prolongé. Cet effet anti-tumeur est augmenté comparé à une protéine αGC/CD1d qui ne cible pas la tumeur. Nous avons aussi montré que l'activation des cellules iNKT avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti-tumeur améliore l'effet anti- tumoral d'un vaccin pour le cancer. Lors d'expériences in vitro, la protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti- tumeur permet aussi d'activer les cellules humaines iNKT et ainsi tuer spécifiquement les cellules tumorales humaines. La protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti-tumeur représente une alternative thérapeutique prometteuse dans l'immunothérapie du cancer. - Les cellules Invariant Natural Killer T (iNKT), dont les effets anti-tumoraux ont été démontrés, sont de puissants activateurs des cellules Natural Killer (NK), des cellules dendritiques (DC) et des lymphocytes T. Cependant, une seule injection du ligand de haute affinité alpha-galactosylceramide (αGC) n'induit une forte activation des cellules iNKT que durant une courte période. Celle-ci est alors suivie d'une longue phase d'anergie, limitant ainsi leur utilisation pour la thérapie. Comme alternative prometteuse, nous avons montré que des injections répétées d'αGC chargé sur une protéine recombinante de CD1d soluble (αGC/sCD1d) chez la souris entraînent une activation prolongée des cellules iNKT, associée à une production continue de cytokine. De plus, le maintien de la réactivité des cellules iNKT permet de prolonger l'activité anti-tumorale lorsque la protéine αGC/sCD1d est fusionnée à un fragment d'anticorps (scFv) dirigé contre la tumeur. L'inhibition de la croissance tumorale n'est optimale que lorsque les souris sont traitées avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-scFv ciblant la tumeur, la protéine αGC/sCD1d-scFv non-appropriée étant moins efficace. Dans le système humain, les protéines recombinantes αGC/sCD1d-anti-HER2 et anti-CEA sont capables d'activer et de faire proliférer des cellules iNKT à partir de PBMCs issues de donneurs sains. De plus, la protéine αGC/sCD1d-scFv a la capacité d'activer directement des clones iNKT humains en l'absence de cellules présentatrices d'antigènes (CPA), contrairement au ligand αGC libre. Mais surtout, la lyse des cellules tumorales par les iNKT humaines n'est obtenue que lorsqu'elles sont incubées avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-scFv anti- tumeur. En outre, la redirection de la cytotoxicité des cellules iNKT vers la tumeur est supérieure à celle obtenue avec une stimulation par des CPA chargées avec l'αGC. Afin d'augmenter les effets anti-tumoraux, nous avons exploité la capacité des cellules iNKT à activer l'immunité adaptive. Pour ce faire, nous avons combiné l'immunothérapie NKT/CD1d avec un vaccin anti-tumoral composé d'un peptide OVA. Des effets synergiques ont été obtenus lorsque les traitements avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti-HER2 étaient associés avec le CpG ODN comme adjuvant pour la vaccination avec le peptide OVA. Ces effets ont été observés à travers l'activation de nombreux lymphocytes T CD8+ spécifique de la tumeur, ainsi que par la forte expansion des cellules NK. Les réponses, innée et adaptive, élevées après le traitement avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti-HER2 combinée au vaccin OVA/CpG ODN étaient associées à un fort ralentissement de la croissance des tumeurs B16- OVA-HER2. Cet effet anti-tumoral corrèle avec l'enrichissement des lymphocytes T CD8+ spécifiques observé à la tumeur. Afin d'étendre l'application des protéines αGC/sCD1d et d'améliorer leur efficacité, nous avons développé des fusions CD1d alternatives. Premièrement, une protéine αGC/sCD1d dimérique, qui permet d'augmenter l'avidité de la molécule CD1d pour les cellules iNKT. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons fusionné la protéine αGC/sCD1d avec un scFv dirigé contre le récepteur 3 du facteur de croissance pour l'endothélium vasculaire (VEGFR-3), afin de cibler l'environnement de la tumeur. Dans l'ensemble, ces résultats démontrent que la thérapie médiée par la protéine recombinante αGC/sCD1d-scFv est une approche prometteuse pour rediriger l'immunité innée et adaptive vers le site tumoral. - Invariant Natural Killer T cells (iNKT) are potent activators of Natural Killer (NK), dendritic cells (DC) and T lymphocytes, and their anti-tumor activities have been well demonstrated. However, a single injection of the high affinity CD1d ligand alpha-galactosylceramide (αGC) leads to a strong but short-lived iNKT cell activation followed by a phase of long-term anergy, limiting the therapeutic use of this ligand. As a promising alternative, we have demonstrated that when αGC is loaded on recombinant soluble CD1d molecules (αGC/sCD1d), repeated injections in mice led to the sustained iNKT cell activation associated with continued cytokine secretion. Importantly, the retained reactivity of iNKT cell led to prolonged antitumor activity when the αGC/sCD1d was fused to an anti-tumor scFv fragments. Optimal inhibition of tumor growth was obtained only when mice were treated with the tumor-targeted αGC/CD1d-scFv fusion, whereas the irrelevant αGC/CD1d-scFv fusion was less efficient. When tested in a human system, the recombinant αGC/sCD1d-anti-HER2 and -anti-CEA fusion proteins were able to expand iNKT cells from PBMCs of healthy donors. Furthermore, the αGC/sCD1d-scFv fusion had the capacity to directly activate human iNKT cells clones without the presence of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), in contrast to the free αGC ligand. Most importantly, tumor cell killing by human iNKT cells was obtained only when co- incubated with the tumor targeted sCD1d-antitumor scFv, and their direct tumor cytotoxicity was superior to the bystander killing obtained with αGC-loaded APCs stimulation. To further enhance the anti-tumor effects, we exploited the ability of iNKT cells to transactivate the adaptive immunity, by combining the NKT/CD1d immunotherapy with a peptide cancer vaccine. Interestingly, synergistic effects were obtained when the αGC/sCD1d- anti-HER2 fusion treatment was combined with CpG ODN as adjuvant for the OVA peptide vaccine, as seen by higher numbers of activated antigen-specific CD8 T cells and NK cells, as compared to each regimen alone. The increased innate and adaptive immune responses upon combined tumor targeted sCD1d-scFv treatment and OVA/CpG vaccine were associated with a strong delay in B16-OVA-HER2 melanoma tumor growth, which correlated with an enrichment of antigen-specific CD8 cells at the tumor site. In order to extend the application of the CD1d fusion, we designed alternative CD1d fusion proteins. First, a dimeric αGC/sCD1d-Fc fusion, which permits to augment the avidity of the CD1d for iNKT cells and second, an αGC/sCD1d fused to an anti vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) scFv, in order to target tumor stroma environment. Altogether, these results demonstrate that the iNKT-mediated immunotherapy via recombinant αGC/sCD1d-scFv fusion is a promising approach to redirect the innate and adaptive antitumor immune response to the tumor site.

AFT3 as a new therapeutic target for skin field cancerization in antagonism with compromised Notch/CSL signaling

Les interactions épithélio-mésenchymateuses jouent un rôle important dans le contrôle du développement normal de la peau, son homéostasie et sa tumorigenèse. Les fibroblastes dermiques (DFs) représentent la catégorie cellulaire la plus abondante dans le stroma et leur rôle est de plus en plus considéré. En ce qui concerne particulièrement la tumorigenèse, des facteurs diffusibles produits par les fibroblastes entourant les tumeurs épithéliales, appelés 'fibroblastes associés au cancer (CAF)', interagissent au niveau de l'inflammation impliquée directement ou indirectement dans la signalisation paracrine, entre le stroma et les cellules épiéliales cancéreuses. Le risque de cancer de la peau augmente de façon exponentielle avec l'âge. Comme un lien probable entre les deux, la sénescence des fibroblastes résulte de la production du sécrétome favorisant la sénescence (SMS), un groupe de facteurs diffusibles induisant une stimulation paracrine de la croissance, l'inflammation et le remodelage de la matrice. De façon fort intéressante, l'induction de ces gènes est aussi une caractéristique des CAFs. Cependant, le lien entre les deux événements cellulaires sénescence et activation des CAFs reste en grande partie inexploré. L'ATF3 (Activating Transcription Factor 3) est un facteur de transcription induit en réponse au stress, dont les fonctions sont hautement spécifiques du type cellulaire. Bien qu'il ait été découvert dans notre laboratoire en tant que promoteur de tumeurs dans les kératinocytes, ses fonctions biologique et biochimique dans le derme n'ont pas encore été étudiées. Récemment, nous avons constaté que, chez la souris, l'abrogation de la voie de signalisation de Notch/CSL dans les DFs, induisait la formation de tumeurs kératinocytaires multifocales. Ces dernières proviennent de la cancérisation en domaine, un phénomène associé à une atrophie du stroma, des altérations de la matrice et de l'inflammation. D'autres études ont montré que CSL agissait comme un régulateur négatif de gènes impliqués dans sénescence des DFs et dans l'activation des CAFs. Ici, nous montrons que la suppression ou l'atténuation de l'expression de ATF3 dans les DFs induit la sénescence et l'expression des gènes liés aux CAFs, de façon similaire à celle déclenchée par la perte de CSL, tandis que la surexpression de ATF3 supprime ces changements. Nous émettons l'hypothèse que ATF3 joue un rôle suppresseur dans l'activation des CAFs et dans la progression des tumeurs kératinocytaires, en surmontant les conséquences de l'abrogation de la voie de signalisation Notch/CSL. En concordance avec cette hypothèse, nous avons constaté que la perte de ATF3 dans les DFs favorisait la tumorigénicité des kératinocytes via le contrôle négatif de cytokines, des enzymes de la matrice de remodelage et de protéines associées au cancer, peut-être par liaison directe des effecteurs de la voie Notch/CSL : IL6 et les gènes Hes. Enfin, dans les échantillons cliniques humains, le stroma sous-jacent aux lésions précancéreuses de kératoses actiniques montre une diminution significative de l'expression de ATF3 par rapport au stroma jouxtant la peau normale. La restauration de l'expression de ATF3 pourrait être utilisée comme un outil thérapeutique en recherche translationnelle pour prévenir ou réprimer le processus de cancérisation en domaine. - Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions play an important role in control of normal skin development, homeostasis and tumorigenesis. The role of dermal fibroblasts (DFs) as the most abundant cell type in stroma is increasingly appreciated. Especially during tumorigenesis, fibroblasts surrounding epithelial tumors, called Cancer Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs), produce diffusible factors (growth factors, inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and enzymes, and matrix metalloproteinases) that mediate inflammation either directly or indirectly through paracrine signaling between stroma and epithelial cancer cells. The risk of skin cancer increases exponentially with age. As a likely link between the two, senescence of fibroblasts results in production of the senescence-messaging-secretome (SMS), a panel of diffusible factors inducing paracrine growth stimulation, inflammation, and matrix remodeling. Interestingly, induction of these genes is also a characteristic of Cancer Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs). However, the link between the two cellular events, senescence and CAF activation is largely unexplored. ATF3 is a key stress response transcription factor with highly cell type specific functions, which has been discovered as a tumor promoter in keratinocytes in our lab. However, the biological and biochemical function of ATF3 in the dermal compartment of the skin has not been studied yet. Recently, we found that compromised Notch/CSL signaling in dermal fibroblasts (DFs) in mice is a primary cause of multifocal keratinocyte tumors called field cancerization associated with stromal atrophy, matrix alterations and inflammation. Further studies showed that CSL functions as a negative regulator of genes involved in DFs senescence and CAF activation. Here, we show that deletion or silencing of the ATF3 gene in DFs activates senescence and CAF-related gene expression similar to that triggered by loss of CSL, while increased ATF3 suppresses these changes. We hypothesize that ATF3 plays a suppressing role in CAF activation and keratinocyte tumor progression, overcoming the consequences of compromised Notch/CSL signaling. In support of this hypothesis, we found that loss of ATF3 in DFs promotes tumorigenic behavior of keratinocytes via negative control of cytokines, matrix-remodeling enzymes and cancer-associated proteins, possibly through direct binding to Notch/CSL targets, IL6 and Hes genes. On the other hand, in human clinical samples, stromal fields underlying premalignant actinic keratosis lesions showed significantly decreased ATF3 expression relative to stroma of flanking normal skin. Restoration of ATF3, which is lost in cancer development, may be used as a therapeutic tool for translational research to prevent or suppress the field cancerization process.

MET: a promising anticancer therapeutic target.

The MET pathway is dysregulated in many human cancers and promotes tumour growth, invasion and dissemination. Abnormalities in MET signalling have been reported to correlate with poor clinical outcomes and drug resistance in patients with cancer. Thus, MET has emerged as an attractive target for cancer therapy. Several MET inhibitors have been introduced into the clinic, and are currently in all phases of clinical trials. In general, initial results from these studies indicate only a modest benefit in unselected populations. In this Review, we discuss current challenges in developing MET inhibitors--including identification of predictive biomarkers--as well as the most-efficient ways to combine these drugs with other targeted agents or with classic chemotherapy or radiotherapy.

Angiotensinergic innervation of the kidney: present knowledge and its significance.

Intrarenal neurotransmission implies the co-release of neuropeptides at the neuro-effector junction with direct influence on parameters of kidney function. The presence of an angiotensin (Ang) II-containing phenotype in catecholaminergic postganglionic and sensory fibers of the kidney, based on immunocytological investigations, has only recently been reported. These angiotensinergic fibers display a distinct morphology and intrarenal distribution, suggesting anatomical and functional subspecialization linked to neuronal Ang II-expression. This review discusses the present knowledge concerning these fibers, and their significance for renal physiology and the pathogenesis of hypertension in light of established mechanisms. The data suggest a new role of Ang II as a co-transmitter stimulating renal target cells or modulating nerve traffic from or to the kidney. Neuronal Ang II is likely to be an independent source of intrarenal Ang II. Further physiological experimentation will have to explore the role of the angiotensinergic renal innervation and integrate it into existing concepts.

Pragmatic approach to nutrition in the ICU: Expert opinion regarding which calorie protein target.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Since the publications of the ESPEN guidelines on enteral and parenteral nutrition in ICU, numerous studies have added information to assist the nutritional management of critically ill patients regarding the recognition of the right population to feed, the energy-protein targeting, the route and the timing to start. METHODS: We reviewed and discussed the literature related to nutrition in the ICU from 2006 until October 2013. RESULTS: To identify safe, minimal and maximal amounts for the different nutrients and at the different stages of the acute illness is necessary. These amounts might be specific for different phases in the time course of the patient's illness. The best approach is to target the energy goal defined by indirect calorimetry. High protein intake (1.5 g/kg/d) is recommended during the early phase of the ICU stay, regardless of the simultaneous calorie intake. This recommendation can reduce catabolism. Later on, high protein intake remains recommended, likely combined with a sufficient amount of energy to avoid proteolysis. CONCLUSIONS: Pragmatic recommendations are proposed to practically optimize nutritional therapy based on recent publications. However, on some issues, there is insufficient evidence to make expert recommendations.

Validation and long-term evaluation of a modified on-line chiral analytical method for therapeutic drug monitoring of (R,S)-methadone in clinical samples.

Matrix effects, which represent an important issue in liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry or tandem mass spectrometry detection, should be closely assessed during method development. In the case of quantitative analysis, the use of stable isotope-labelled internal standard with physico-chemical properties and ionization behaviour similar to the analyte is recommended. In this paper, an example of the choice of a co-eluting deuterated internal standard to compensate for short-term and long-term matrix effect in the case of chiral (R,S)-methadone plasma quantification is reported. The method was fully validated over a concentration range of 5-800 ng/mL for each methadone enantiomer with satisfactory relative bias (-1.0 to 1.0%), repeatability (0.9-4.9%) and intermediate precision (1.4-12.0%). From the results obtained during validation, a control chart process during 52 series of routine analysis was established using both intermediate precision standard deviation and FDA acceptance criteria. The results of routine quality control samples were generally included in the +/-15% variability around the target value and mainly in the two standard deviation interval illustrating the long-term stability of the method. The intermediate precision variability estimated in method validation was found to be coherent with the routine use of the method. During this period, 257 trough concentration and 54 peak concentration plasma samples of patients undergoing (R,S)-methadone treatment were successfully analysed for routine therapeutic drug monitoring.

Drosophila Myc interacts with host cell factor (dHCF) to activate transcription and control growth.

The Myc proto-oncoproteins are transcription factors that recognize numerous target genes through hexameric DNA sequences called E-boxes. The mechanism by which they then activate the expression of these targets is still under debate. Here, we use an RNAi screen in Drosophila S2 cells to identify Drosophila host cell factor (dHCF) as a novel co-factor for Myc that is functionally required for the activation of a Myc-dependent reporter construct. dHCF is also essential for the full activation of endogenous Myc target genes in S2 cells, and for the ability of Myc to promote growth in vivo. Myc and dHCF physically interact, and they colocalize on common target genes. Furthermore, down-regulation of dHCF-associated histone acetyltransferase and histone methyltransferase complexes in vivo interferes with the Myc biological activities. We therefore propose that dHCF recruits such chromatin-modifying complexes and thereby contributes to the expression of Myc targets and hence to the execution of Myc biological activities.

The reasons for discrepancies in target volume delineation : a SASRO study on head-and-neck and prostate cancers.

PURPOSE: To understand the reasons for differences in the delineation of target volumes between physicians. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 18 Swiss radiooncology centers were invited to delineate volumes for one prostate and one head-and-neck case. In addition, a questionnaire was sent to evaluate the differences in the volume definition (GTV [gross tumor volume], CTV [clinical target volume], PTV [planning target volume]), the various estimated margins, and the nodes at risk. Coherence between drawn and stated margins by centers was calculated. The questionnaire also included a nonspecific series of questions regarding planning methods in each institution. RESULTS: Fairly large differences in the drawn volumes were seen between the centers in both cases and also in the definition of volumes. Correlation between drawn and stated margins was fair in the prostate case and poor in the head-and-neck case. The questionnaire revealed important differences in the planning methods between centers. CONCLUSION: These large differences could be explained by (1) a variable knowledge/interpretation of ICRU definitions, (2) variable interpretations of the potential microscopic extent, (3) difficulties in GTV identification, (4) differences in the concept, and (5) incoherence between theory (i.e., stated margins) and practice (i.e., drawn margins).

Particulate formulations for the delivery of poly(I:C) as vaccine adjuvant.

Current research and development of antigens for vaccination often center on purified recombinant proteins, viral subunits, synthetic oligopeptides or oligosaccharides, most of them suffering from being poorly immunogenic and subject to degradation. Hence, they call for efficient delivery systems and potent immunostimulants, jointly denoted as adjuvants. Particulate delivery systems like emulsions, liposomes, nanoparticles and microspheres may provide protection from degradation and facilitate the co-formulation of both the antigen and the immunostimulant. Synthetic double-stranded (ds) RNA, such as polyriboinosinic acid-polyribocytidylic acid, poly(I:C), is a mimic of viral dsRNA and, as such, a promising immunostimulant candidate for vaccines directed against intracellular pathogens. Poly(I:C) signaling is primarily dependent on Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3), and on melanoma differentiation-associated gene-5 (MDA-5), and strongly drives cell-mediated immunity and a potent type I interferon response. However, stability and toxicity issues so far prevented the clinical application of dsRNAs as they undergo rapid enzymatic degradation and bear the potential to trigger undue immune stimulation as well as autoimmune disorders. This review addresses these concerns and suggests strategies to improve the safety and efficacy of immunostimulatory dsRNA formulations. The focus is on technological means required to lower the necessary dosage of poly(I:C), to target surface-modified microspheres passively or actively to antigen-presenting cells (APCs), to control their interaction with non-professional phagocytes and to modulate the resulting cytokine secretion profile.

Reduced Prostasin (CAP1/PRSS8) Activity Eliminates HAI-1 and HAI-2 Deficiency-Associated Developmental Defects by Preventing Matriptase Activation.

Loss of either hepatocyte growth factor activator inhibitor (HAI)-1 or -2 is associated with embryonic lethality in mice, which can be rescued by the simultaneous inactivation of the membrane-anchored serine protease, matriptase, thereby demonstrating that a matriptase-dependent proteolytic pathway is a critical developmental target for both protease inhibitors. Here, we performed a genetic epistasis analysis to identify additional components of this pathway by generating mice with combined deficiency in either HAI-1 or HAI-2, along with genes encoding developmentally co-expressed candidate matriptase targets, and screening for the rescue of embryonic development. Hypomorphic mutations in Prss8, encoding the GPI-anchored serine protease, prostasin (CAP1, PRSS8), restored placentation and normal development of HAI-1-deficient embryos and prevented early embryonic lethality, mid-gestation lethality due to placental labyrinth failure, and neural tube defects in HAI-2-deficient embryos. Inactivation of genes encoding c-Met, protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR-2), or the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) alpha subunit all failed to rescue embryonic lethality, suggesting that deregulated matriptase-prostasin activity causes developmental failure independent of aberrant c-Met and PAR-2 signaling or impaired epithelial sodium transport. Furthermore, phenotypic analysis of PAR-1 and matriptase double-deficient embryos suggests that the protease may not be critical for focal proteolytic activation of PAR-2 during neural tube closure. Paradoxically, although matriptase auto-activates and is a well-established upstream epidermal activator of prostasin, biochemical analysis of matriptase- and prostasin-deficient placental tissues revealed a requirement of prostasin for conversion of the matriptase zymogen to active matriptase, whereas prostasin zymogen activation was matriptase-independent.

Endothelial Cell-Derived Nitric Oxide Enhances Aerobic Glycolysis in Astrocytes via HIF-1α-Mediated Target Gene Activation.

Astrocytes exhibit a prominent glycolytic activity, but whether such a metabolic profile is influenced by intercellular communication is unknown. Treatment of primary cultures of mouse cortical astrocytes with the nitric oxide (NO) donor DetaNONOate induced a time-dependent enhancement in the expression of genes encoding various glycolytic enzymes as well as transporters for glucose and lactate. Such an effect was shown to be dependent on the hypoxia-inducible factor HIF-1α, which is stabilized and translocated to the nucleus to exert its transcriptional regulation. NO action was dependent on both the PI3K/Akt/mTOR and MEK signaling pathways and required the activation of COX, but was independent of the soluble guanylate cyclase pathway. Furthermore, as a consequence of NO treatment, an enhanced lactate production and release by astrocytes was evidenced, which was prevented by downregulating HIF-1α. Several brain cell types represent possible sources of NO. It was found that endothelial cells, which express the endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) isoform, constitutively produced the largest amount of NO in culture. When astrocytes were cocultured with primary cultures of brain vascular endothelial cells, stabilization of HIF-1α and an enhancement in glucose transporter-1, hexokinase-2, and monocarboxylate transporter-4 expression as well as increased lactate production was found in astrocytes. This effect was inhibited by the NOS inhibitor l-NAME and was not seen when astrocytes were cocultured with primary cultures of cortical neurons. Our findings suggest that endothelial cell-derived NO participates to the maintenance of a high glycolytic activity in astrocytes mediated by astrocytic HIF-1α activation.