c-Jun N-terminal kinase has a key role in Alzheimer disease synaptic dysfunction in vivo.

Altered synaptic function is considered one of the first features of Alzheimer disease (AD). Currently, no treatment is available to prevent the dysfunction of excitatory synapses in AD. Identification of the key modulators of synaptopathy is of particular significance in the treatment of AD. We here characterized the pathways leading to synaptopathy in TgCRND8 mice and showed that c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) is activated at the spine prior to the onset of cognitive impairment. The specific inhibition of JNK, with its specific inhibiting peptide D-JNKI1, prevented synaptic dysfunction in TgCRND8 mice. D-JNKI1 avoided both the loss of postsynaptic proteins and glutamate receptors from the postsynaptic density and the reduction in size of excitatory synapses, reverting their dysfunction. This set of data reveals that JNK is a key signaling pathway in AD synaptic injury and that its specific inhibition offers an innovative therapeutic strategy to prevent spine degeneration in AD.

Rôle de l'activation de c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) dans un modèle de glaucome chez le rat et neuroprotection par inhibition de la voie de JNK

RESUME : Dans ce travail effectué chez le rat adulte, l'excitotoxicité rétinienne est élicitée par injection intravitréenne de NMDA. Les lésions en résultant sont localisées dans la rétine interne. Elles prennent la forme de pycnoses dans la couche des cellules ganglionnaires (corps cellulaires des cellules ganglionnaires et amacrines déplacées) et dans la partie interne de la couche nucléaire interne (cellules amacrines). Cette localisation est liée à la présence de récepteurs au glutamate de type NMDA sur ces cellules. L'activation de ces récepteurs entraîne un influx calcique et l'activation de diverses enzymes (phospholipase A, calpaïnes, calmoduline, synthase d'oxyde nitrique). La signalisation se poursuit en aval en partie par les voies des Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) : ERK, p38, ]NK. Dans les expériences présentées, toutes trois sont activées après l'injection de NMDA. Dans les cascades de signalisation de JNK, trois kinases s'ancrent sur une protéine scaffold. Les MAPKKK phosphorylent MKK4 et MKK7, qui phosphorylent JNK. JNK a de nombreuses cibles nucléaires (dont le facteur de transcription c-Jun) et cytoplasmiques. La voie de JNK est bloquée par l'inhibiteur peptidique D-JNKI-1 en empêchant l'interaction de la kinase avec son substrat. L'inhibiteur est formé de 20 acides aminés du domaine de liaison JBD et de 10 acides aminés de la partie TAT du virus HIV. L'injection intravitréenne de D-JNKI-1 permet une diminution des taux de JNK et c-Jun phosphorylés dans les lysats de rétine. L'effet prépondérant est la restriction importante des altérations histologiques des couches internes de la rétine. L'évaluation par électrorétinogramme met en sus en évidence une sauvegarde de la fonction cellulaire. Ce travail a ainsi permis d'établir la protection morphologique et fonctionnelle des cellules de la rétine interne par inhibition spécifique de la voie de JNK lors d'excitotoxicité. SUMMARY Excitotoxicity in the retina associates with several pathologies like retinal ischemia, traumatic optic neuropathy and glaucoma. In this study, excitotoxicity is elicited by intravitreal NMDA injection in adult rats. Lesions localise in the inner retina. They present as pyknotic cells in the ganglion cell layer (ganglion cells and displaced amacrines) and the inner nuclear layer (amacrine cells). These cells express NMDA glutamate receptors. The receptor activation leads to a calcium flow into the cell and hence enzyme activation (phospholipase, calpains, calmodulin, nitric oxide synthase). The subsequent signaling pathways can involve the Mitogen Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK): ERK, p38 end JNK. These were all activated in our experiments. The signaling cascade organises around several scaffold proteins. The various MAPKKK phosphorylate MKK4 and MKK7, which phosphorylate JNK. JNK targets are of nuclear (c-Jun transcription factor) or cytoplasmic localisation. The peptidic inhibitor D-JNKI-1, 20 amino acids from the JNK binding domain JBD coupled to 10 amino acids of the TAT transporter, disrupts the binding of JNK with its substrate. Intravitreal injection of the inhibitor lowers phosphorylated forms of JNK and c-Jun in retinal extracts. It protects strongly against histological lesions in the inner retina and allows functional rescue.

Evidence for multiple B- and T-cell epitopes in Plasmodium falciparum liver-stage antigen 3.

Liver-stage antigen 3 (LSA-3) is a new vaccine candidate that can induce protection against Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite challenge. Using a series of long synthetic peptides (LSP) encompassing most of the 210-kDa LSA-3 protein, a study of the antigenicity of this protein was carried out in 203 inhabitants from the villages of Dielmo (n = 143) and Ndiop (n = 60) in Senegal (the level of malaria transmission differs in these two villages). Lymphocyte responses to each individual LSA-3 peptide were recorded, some at high prevalences (up to 43%). Antibodies were also detected to each of the 20 peptides, many at high prevalence (up to 84% of responders), and were directed to both nonrepeat and repeat regions. Immune responses to LSA-3 were detectable even in individuals of less than 5 years of age and increased with age and hence exposure to malaria, although they were not directly related to the level of malaria transmission. Thus, several valuable T- and B-cell epitopes were characterized all along the LSA-3 protein, supporting the antigenicity of this P. falciparum vaccine candidate. Finally, antibodies specific for peptide LSP10 located in a nonrepeat region of LSA-3 were found significantly associated with a lower risk of malaria attack over 1 year of daily clinical follow-up in children between the ages of 7 and 15 years, but not in older individuals.

RNA-driven cyclin-dependent kinase regulation: when CDK9/cyclin T subunits of P-TEFb meet their ribonucleoprotein partners.

The positive transcription elongation factor (P-TEFb) consists of CDK9, a cyclin-dependent kinase and its cyclin T partner. It is required for transcription of most class II genes. Its activity is regulated by non-coding RNAs. The 7SK cellular RNA turns the HEXIM cellular protein into a P-TEFb inhibitor that binds its cyclin T subunit. Thus, P-TEFb activity responds to variations in global cellular transcriptional activity and to physiological conditions linked to cell differentiation, proliferation or cardiac hypertrophy. In contrast, the Tat activation region RNA plays an activating role. This feature at the 5' end of the human immunodeficiency (HIV) viral transcript associates with the viral protein Tat that in turn binds cyclin T1 and recruits active P-TEFb to the HIV promoter. This results in enhanced P-TEFb activity, which is critical for an efficient production of viral transcripts. Although discovered recently, the regulation of P-TEFb becomes a paradigm for non-coding RNAs that regulate transcription factors. It is also a unique example of RNA-driven regulation of a cyclindependent kinase.

The antibody response in mice to carrier-free synthetic polymers of Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite repetitive epitope is I-Ab-restricted: possible implications for malaria vaccines.

The immunogenicity of a novel synthetic peptide consisting of an average of 40 (Asn-Ala-Asn-Pro) repeats of the circumsporozoite protein of Plasmodium falciparum, (NANP)40, was studied in mice without using any carrier proteins. First, high titers of anti-(NANP)40 antibodies could be obtained after immunization of C57BL/6 mice. These antibodies also reacted with an extract of mosquitoes infected with P. falciparum sporozoites. C57BL/6 nu/nu mice did not produce antibodies against (NANP)40. Secondly, when 14 strains of mice with nine different H-2 haplotypes were immunized with (NANP)40 without carrier, only H-2b mice were found to produce anti-(NANP)40 antibodies, whereas all non-H-2b mice were consistently unresponsive. This response was demonstrated to be I-A-linked by using recombinant and mutant mice. I-Ab [B10.A(5R)] mice produced anti-(NANP)40 antibodies as well as H-2b inbred mice. B6CH-2bm12 I-Ab-mutant mice showed only a very low response. Third, the antibody response against (NANP)40 could be induced in nonresponder mice by immunization with the peptide coupled to a carrier protein. In view of the existence of such an exceptional H-2b restriction in the response to sporozoite synthetic peptides in mice, the triggering of peptide-specific T cell responses in humans receiving sporozoite malaria vaccines might be difficult to achieve.

Neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia : an effect of c-Jun N-terminal kinase inhibition on the inflammatory response

RESUMESuite à un accident vasculaire cérébral (AVC) ischémique, les cellules gliales ducerveau deviennent activées, de nombreuses cellules inflammatoires pénètrent dans letissu lésé et sécrètent une grande variété de cytokines et chémokines. Aujourd'hui, ilexiste des interrogations sur les effets bénéfiques ou délétères de cette inflammation surla taille de la lésion et le pronostic neurologique.Ce projet vise à évaluer l'effet d'un peptide neuroprotecteur, D-JNKI1, inhibiteur de lavoie pro-apoptotique de signalisation intracellulaire c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), surl'inflammation post-ischémique.Nous montrons d'abord que la microglie est largement activée dans toute la région lésée48 h après l'induction d'une ischémie chez la souris. Cependant, malgré l'inhibition dela mort neuronale par D-JNKI1 évaluée à 48 h, nous n'observons de modification ni del'activation de la microglie, ni de son nombre. Ensuite, nous montrons que le cerveaupeut être protégé même s'il y a une augmentation massive de la sécrétion de médiateursinflammatoires dans la circulation systémique très tôt après induction d'un AVCischémique. De plus, nous notons que la sécrétion de molécules inflammatoires dans lecerveau n'est pas différente entre les animaux traités par D-JNKI1 ou une solutionsaline, bien que nous ayons obtenu une neuroprotection significative chez les animauxtraités.En conclusion, nous montrons que l'inhibition de la voie de JNK par D-JNKI1n'influence pas directement l'inflammation post-ischémique. Ceci suggère quel'inhibition de l'inflammation n'est pas forcément nécessaire pour obtenir en hautdegré de neuroprotection du parenchyme lésé après ischémie cérébrale, et que lesmécanismes inflammatoires déclenchés lors d'une ischémie cérébrale ne sont pasforcément délétères pour la récupération du tissu endommagé.SUMMARYAfter cerebral ischemia, glial cells become activated and numerous inflammatory cellsinfiltrate the site of the lesion, secreting a large variety of cytokines and chemokines. Itis controversial whether this brain inflammation is detrimental or beneficial and how itinfluences lesion size and neurological outcome.This project was aimed at critically evaluating whether the neuroprotective peptide DJNKI,an inhibitor of the pro-apopotic c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway,modulates post-ischemic inflammation in animal models of stroke. Specifically, it wasasked whether JNK inhibition prevents microglial activation and the release ofinflammatory mediators.In the first part of this study, we showed that microglia was activated throughout thelesion 48 h after experimental stroke. However, the activation and accumulation ofmicroglia was not reduced by D-JNKI1, despite a significant reduction of the lesionsize. In the second part of this project, we demonstrated that neuroprotection measuredat 48 h occurs even though inflammatory mediators are released in the plasma veryearly after the onset of cerebral ischemia. Furthermore, we found that secretion ofinflammatory mediators in the brain was not different in groups treated with D-JNKI1or not, despite a significant reduction of the lesion size in the treated group.Altogether, we show that inhibition of the JNK pathway using D-JNKI1 does notinfluence directly post-stroke inflammation. Inhibition of inflammation is therefore notnecessarily required for neuroprotection after cerebral ischemia. Thus, post-strokeinflammation might not be detrimental for the tissue recovery.

TIE-2 and VEGFR Kinase Activities Drive Immunosuppressive Function of TIE-2-Expressing Monocytes in Human Breast Tumors.

PURPOSE: Tumor-associated TIE-2-expressing monocytes (TEM) are highly proangiogenic cells critical for tumor vascularization. We previously showed that, in human breast cancer, TIE-2 and VEGFR pathways control proangiogenic activity of TEMs. Here, we examine the contribution of these pathways to immunosuppressive activity of TEMs. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: We investigated the changes in immunosuppressive activity of TEMs and gene expression in response to specific kinase inhibitors of TIE-2 and VEGFR. The ability of tumor TEMs to suppress tumor-specific T-cell response mediated by tumor dendritic cells (DC) was measured in vitro. Characterization of TEM and DC phenotype in addition to their interaction with T cells was done using confocal microscopic images analysis of breast carcinomas. RESULTS: TEMs from breast tumors are able to suppress tumor-specific immune responses. Importantly, proangiogenic and suppressive functions of TEMs are similarly driven by TIE-2 and VEGFR kinase activity. Furthermore, we show that tumor TEMs can function as antigen-presenting cells and elicit a weak proliferation of T cells. Blocking TIE-2 and VEGFR kinase activity induced TEMs to change their phenotype into cells with features of myeloid dendritic cells. We show that immunosuppressive activity of TEMs is associated with high CD86 surface expression and extensive engagement of T regulatory cells in breast tumors. TIE-2 and VEGFR kinase activity was also necessary to maintain high CD86 surface expression levels and to convert T cells into regulatory cells. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that TEMs are plastic cells that can be reverted from suppressive, proangiogenic cells into cells that are able to mediate an antitumoral immune response. Clin Cancer Res; 19(13); 3439-49. ©2013 AACR.

A role for the src family kinase Fyn in NK cell activation and the formation of the repertoire of Ly49 receptors.

NK cell function is regulated by a dual receptor system, which integrates signals from triggering receptors and MHC class I-specific inhibitory receptors. We show here that the src family kinase Fyn is required for efficient, NK cell-mediated lysis of target cells, which lack both self-MHC class I molecules and ligands for NKG2D, an activating NK cell receptor. In contrast, NK cell inhibition by the MHC class I-specific receptor Ly49A was independent of Fyn, suggesting that Fyn is specifically required for NK cell activation via non-MHC receptor(s). Compared to wild type, significantly fewer Fyn-deficient NK cells expressed the inhibitory Ly49A receptor. The presence of a transgenic Ly49A receptor together with its H-2(d) ligand strongly reduced the usage of endogenous Ly49 receptors in Fyn-deficient mice. These data suggest a model in which the repertoire of inhibitory Ly49 receptors is formed under the influenced of Fyn-dependent NK cell activation as well as the respective MHC class I environment. NK cells may acquire Ly49 receptors until they generate sufficient inhibitory signals to balance their activation levels. Such a process would ensure the induction of NK cell self-tolerance.

Plasmodium falciparum: nitric oxide modulates heme speciation in isolated food vacuoles.

Nitric oxide (NO) and NO-derived reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are present in the food vacuole (FV) of Plasmodium falciparum trophozoites. The product of PFL1555w, a putative cytochrome b(5), localizes in the FV membrane, similar to what was previously observed for the product of PF13_0353, a putative cytochrome b(5) reductase. These two gene products may contribute to NO generation by denitrification chemistry from nitrate and/or nitrite present in the erythrocyte cytosol. The possible coordination of NO to heme species present in the food vacuole was probed by resonance Raman spectroscopy. The spectroscopic data revealed that in situ generated NO interacts with heme inside the intact FVs to form ferrous heme nitrosyl complexes that influence intra-vacuolar heme solubility. The formation of heme nitrosyl complexes within the FV is a previously unrecognized factor that could affect the equilibrium between soluble and crystallized heme within the FV in vivo.

Suivi thérapeutique des concentrations d'inhibiteurs de tyrosine kinase et d'autres médicaments oncologiques = Therapeutisches Drug-Monitoring der Konzentration von Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren und anderen Onkologika

Les médicaments anticancéreux sont souvent caractérisés par une importante variabilité pharmacocinétique interindividuelle, des relations entre concentration et réponse clinique et une marge thérapeutique étroite. Pourtant, le suivi thérapeutique des concentrations de ces médicaments (TDM) est encore rare en oncologie. Les bases scientifiques justifiant un TDM des nouvelles thérapies ciblées orales sont encore très hétérogènes. Cependant, d'assez solides évidences existent pour l'imatinib et certaines apparaissent progressivement pour d'autres composés. A côté de cela, le TDM est aussi pratiqué dans des situations spécifiques de traitement par certaines chimiothérapies conventionnelles. Des efforts considérables restent toutefois à réaliser pour mieux caractériser la pharmacocinétique de ces médicaments, pour préciser leurs relations concentration-effet et pour conduire des études prospectives randomisées évaluant le bénéfice clinique de l'approche TDM en oncologie.

Induction of calmodulin kinase IV by the thyroid hormone during the development of rat brain.

This communication reports the specific induction of calmodulin kinase IV by the thyroid hormone 3,3',5-triiodo-L-thyronine (T3) in a time- and concentration-dependent manner at a very early stage of brain differentiation using a fetal rat telencephalon primary cell culture system, which can grow and differentiate under chemically defined conditions. The induction of the enzyme that can be observed both on the mRNA and on the protein level is T3-specific, i.e. it cannot be induced by retinoic acid or reverse T3, and can be inhibited on both the transcriptional and the translational level by adding to the culture medium actinomycin D or cycloheximide, respectively. The earliest detection of calmodulin kinase IV in the fetal brain tissue of the rat is at days E16/E17, both on the mRNA as well as on the protein level. This is the first report in which a second messenger-dependent kinase involved in the control of cell regulatory processes is itself controlled by a primary messenger, the thyroid hormone.

c-Jun N-terminal kinase pathway inhibition in intracerebral hemorrhage.

Background: Inhibition of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway by the TAT-coupled peptide XG-102 (formerly D-JNKI1) induces strong neuroprotection in ischemic stroke in rodents. We investigated the effect of JNK inhibition in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Methods: Three hours after induction of ICH by intrastriatal collagenase injection in mice, the animals received an intravenous injection of 100 mu g/kg of XG-102. The neurological outcome was assessed daily and the mice were sacrificed at 6 h, 1, 2 or 5 days after ICH. Results: XG-102 administration significantly improved the neurological outcome at 1 day (p < 0.01). The lesion volume was significantly decreased after 2 days (29 +/- 11 vs. 39 +/- 5 mm(3) in vehicle-treated animals, p < 0.05). There was also a decreased hemispheric swelling (14 +/- 13 vs. 26 +/- 9% in vehicle-treated animals, p < 0.05) correlating with increased aquaporin 4 expression. Conclusions: XG-102 attenuates cerebral edema in ICH and functional impairment at early time points. The beneficial effects observed with XG-102 in ICH, as well as in ischemic stroke, open the possibility to rapidly treat stroke patients before imaging, thereby saving precious time.

Cholinergic neurons of fetal rat telencephalon in aggregating cell culture respond to NGF as well as to protein kinase C-activating tumor promoters.

Serum-free aggregating cell cultures of fetal rat telencephalon treated with the potent tumor promoter phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) showed a dose-dependent, persistent stimulation of the enzymes choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), glutamic acid decarboxylase and glutamine synthetase. After elimination of the proliferating cells by treatment of the cultures with Ara-C (0.4 microM) only the cholinergic marker enzyme, ChAT, could be stimulated by tumor promoters. The non-promoting phorbol ester, 4 alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate proved to be inactive in these cultures, whereas the potent non-phorbol tumor promoter, mezerein, produced an even greater stimulatory effect than PMA. Since PMA and mezerein are potent and specific activators of protein kinase C, the present results suggest a role for this second messenger in the development of cholinergic telencephalon neurons. Stimulation of ChAT required prolonged exposure (48 h) of the cultures to PMA and the responsiveness of the cholinergic neurons to the tumor promoters decreased with progressive cellular maturation. The cholinergic telencephalon neurons showed the same pattern of responsiveness for tumor promoters as for nerve growth factor (NGF). However, the combined treatment with NGF and either PMA or mezerein produced an additive stimulatory effect, suggesting somewhat different mechanisms of action.

Synthetic Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite peptides elicit heterogenous L3T4+ T cell proliferative responses in H-2b mice.

The ability of synthetic P. falciparum (NANP)n circumsporozoite peptides to elicit murine T cell proliferative responses was studied. When C57BL/6, C3H, and DBA/2 mice were injected with (NANP)40, only C57BL/6 (H-2b)-immune lymph node cells proliferated on restimulation in vitro with the same peptide. By using anti-I-A monoclonal antibodies or spleen cells from congenic H-2b mice as a source of antigen-presenting cells, the T cell proliferative response was shown to be restricted to the I-Ab region of the C57BL/6 haplotype. These results are in agreement with previous experiments which demonstrated that the anti-(NANP)40 antibody response was uniquely restricted to C57BL/6 (H-2b) mice. Several C57BL/6 long-term (NANP)n-specific T cell lines and clones were derived. All of the clones exhibited the L3T4 helper T cell phenotype. A considerable heterogeneity of T cell responses was observed when the lines and clones were stimulated with different concentrations of the various peptides studied. The results, together with the observed genetic restriction for both antibody and T cell responses, suggest that perhaps not all individuals who receive a similar repetitive tetrapeptide sporozoite malaria vaccine will develop T cell and or antibody responses.