Hybridisation and diversification in the adaptive radiation of clownfishes.

BackgroundThe importance of hybridisation during species diversification has long been debated among evolutionary biologists. It is increasingly recognised that hybridisation events occurred during the evolutionary history of numerous species, especially during the early stages of adaptive radiation. We study the effect of hybridisation on diversification in the clownfishes, a clade of coral reef fish that diversified through an adaptive radiation process. While two species of clownfish are likely to have been described from hybrid specimens, the occurrence and effect of hybridisation on the clade diversification is yet unknown.ResultsWe generate sequences of three mitochondrial genes to complete an existing dataset of nuclear sequences and document cytonuclear discordance at a node, which shows a drastic increase of diversification rate. Then, using a tree-based jack-knife method, we identify clownfish species likely stemming from hybridisation events. Finally, we use molecular cloning and identify the putative parental species of four clownfish specimens that display the morphological characteristics of hybrids.ConclusionsOur results show that consistently with the syngameon hypothesis, hybridisation events are linked with a burst of diversification in the clownfishes. Moreover, several recently diverged clownfish lineages likely originated through hybridisation, which indicates that diversification, catalysed by hybridisation events, may still be happening.

Effects of MRI scan acceleration on brain volume measurement consistency.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the effects of recent advances in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) radiofrequency (RF) coil and parallel imaging technology on brain volume measurement consistency. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In all, 103 whole-brain MRI volumes were acquired at a clinical 3T MRI, equipped with a 12- and 32-channel head coil, using the T1-weighted protocol as employed in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative study with parallel imaging accelerations ranging from 1 to 5. An experienced reader performed qualitative ratings of the images. For quantitative analysis, differences in composite width (CW, a measure of image similarity) and boundary shift integral (BSI, a measure of whole-brain atrophy) were calculated. RESULTS: Intra- and intersession comparisons of CW and BSI measures from scans with equal acceleration demonstrated excellent scan-rescan accuracy, even at the highest acceleration applied. Pairs-of-scans acquired with different accelerations exhibited poor scan-rescan consistency only when differences in the acceleration factor were maximized. A change in the coil hardware between compared scans was found to bias the BSI measure. CONCLUSION: The most important findings are that the accelerated acquisitions appear to be compatible with the assessment of high-quality quantitative information and that for highest scan-rescan accuracy in serial scans the acquisition protocol should be kept as consistent as possible over time. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2012;36:1234-1240. ©2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Facteurs endogènes et exogènes influençant l'écriture manuelle chez l'enfant

Introduction L'écriture manuelle fluide et automatisée constitue, avec la lecture, les fondements au développement des compétences scolaires. En effet, l'enfant peut développer le langage écrit avec l'acquisition de l'écriture, il a besoin d'une écriture manuelle automatisée lors d'évaluations scolaires écrites. De plus, la sollicitation de l'écriture manuelle augmente au cours de la scolarité, que ce soit au niveau de l'endurance, de la vitesse ou de la qualité. L'acquisition de l'écriture requiert des processus cognitifs, linguistiques et perceptivomoteurs, définis en tant que facteurs internes ou endogènes (Beeson et al., 2003) et résulte d'une démarche d'enseignement et d'un processus d'apprentissage constituant des facteurs externes ou exogènes. Les perturbations de l'acquisition de l'écriture sont nommées de différentes manières dans la littérature scientifique. Les chercheurs anglo-saxons convoquent la notion de faible écriture manuelle (poor handwriting), de troubles grapho-moteurs ou de difficultés d'écriture (Weintraub & Graham, 2000 ; Jongmans, Smits-Engelsman, & Schoemaker, 2003 ; Volman, van Schendel, &Jongmans, 2006) qui se caractérisent par une absence de régularité du tracé et/ ou de l'espace entre les mots, par des lettres ambiguës (Rosenblum, Weiss, & Parush, 2006). Les auteurs francophones, le plus souvent de formation médicale (Gubbay & de Klerk, 1995 ; Mazeau, 2005), utilisent plus fréquemment le diagnostic de dysgraphie qui renvoie à des difficultés d'assemblage de ronds et de traits pour former une lettre perturbant ainsi l'apprentissage de l'écriture (Mazeau, 2005). Selon Mazeau, la dysgraphie fait partie des troubles d'apprentissage. Les conséquences d'une faible écriture manuelle sont multiples. Si l'écriture n'est pas automatisée, l'enfant est placé dans une situation de double tâche nécessitant une attention focalisée à la fois sur l'acte d'écrire et sur le raisonnement nécessaire pour réaliser les exigences d'une tâche scolaire (Berningér et al., 1997). Si l'enfant se concentre sur la formation des lettres et le contrôle des mouvements, le raisonnement nécessaire à l'application de règles de grammaire et d'orthographe est perturbé tout comme la qualité des idées lors d'une composition. L'enfant présentant une écriture lente ne parviendra pas à finaliser son travail dans les situations de tests. Les difficultés d'écriture manuelle constituent un facteur de prédiction des troubles d'apprentissage (Harvey & Henderson, 1997 ; Simner, 1982) et elles sont fréquemment citées parmi les causes de la littératie. Car, comme le relèvent Berninger, Mizokawa et Bragg (1991), l'enfant présentant des difficultés d'écriture manuelle aura tendance à éviter toute activité d'écriture renforçant ainsi l'écart avec ses pairs dans ce domaine. Si ces comportements d'évitement se situent dans la période d'apprentissage de l'écriture, ils perturberont la mémorisation des lettres. En effet, la mémorisation des lettres est meilleure lorsque l'apprentissage se fait en situation d'écriture manuelle qu'en situation de lecture uniquement (Longcamp, Boucard, Guilhodes, & Velay, 2006). Par ailleurs, les épreuves dont la qualité de l'écriture est faible font l'objet d'évaluation moins favorable que celles dont l'écriture est plus facilement lisible. Les enseignants/es seraient alors moins persévérants/es dans leur lecture et plus sévères lors de la notation d'une rédaction. Ils, elles développeraient une faible perception des compétences en composition lorsqu'ils, elles sont confrontés/es à une épreuve dont la qualité est peu fluide et peu lisible (Alston & Taylor, 1987). L'identification des difficultés d'écriture peut se fairé de différentes manières (Kozatiek & Powell, 2002 ; Simons & Thijs, 2006 ). D'une part, l'appréciation de la qualité et de la vitesse d'écriture manuelle peut être subjective avec l'avis de l'enseignant et, d'autre part, objective avec l'utilisation de tests standardisés comportant des critères permettant de mesurer la vitesse et la qualité de l'écriture. Les conditions de passation des évaluations peuvent varier (copie, dictée ou composition) et influencer la vitesse et la qualité de l'écriture. La vitesse est moindre et la taille des lettres est inférieure en situation de composition qu'en situation de copie tandis que la régularité du tracé est plus stable en situation de copie que lors d'une composition. Si le dépistage et l'identification des difficultés d'écriture contribuent à la prévention de risques ultérieurs tels que de faibles compétence en littératie, la compréhension des causes de ces difficultés permettra le développement de moyens de remédiation de ces difficultés. Dans la littérature scientifique traitant de cette problématique, des facteurs endogènes ou exogènes peuvent être identifiés. Les facteurs endogènes regroupent autant la maturation développementale et le genre que les fonctions sensorimotrices telles que les dextérités manuelle et digitale, l'intégration visuomotrice, la visuoperception, l'attention visuelle et les fonctions cognitives. En outre, les troubles du développement tels qu'un trouble du langage, un déficit de l'attention ou un Trouble de l'acquisition de la coordination (TAC) (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association, 2003) peuvent perturber l'acquisition de l'écriture. Les facteurs exogènes correspondent soit aux facteurs environnementaux tels que la position de l'enfant ou l'outil scripteur utilisé, soit aux modalités et à la durée de l'enseignement de l'écriture. En effet, la durée de l'enseignement de l'écriture et les modalités pédagogiques contribuent à marquer les différences interindividuelles pour la qualité et pour la vitesse de l'écriture. Actuellement, l'enseignement de l'écriture est, dans la plupart des programmes scolaires, intégré dans le cadre d'autres cours et ne fait pas l'objet d'un enseignement spécifique. Cette pratique entraîné un auto-apprentissage de la part de l'enfant et, par conséquent, un apprentissage implicite de l'écriture alors que les bénéfices d'un enseignement explicite ont été largement mis en évidence par Willingham et Goedert-Eschmann (1999). En effet, ces auteurs ont montré qu'un enseignement explicite favorise l'acquisition, la performance et le transfert d'apprentissage de manière plus importante que l'apprentissage implicite. Paradoxalement, alors que l'enseignement de l'écriture tend à être délaissé dans les programmes scolaires, les études mettant en évidence l'efficacité de l'enseignement de l'écriture (Berninger et al., 1997 ; Jongmans, Linthorst-Bakker, Westenberg & SmitsEngelsman et al., 2003 ; Schoemaker, Niemeijer, Reynders, & Smits-Engelsman , 2003) sont nombreuses. Leurs résultats montrent que l'enseignement d'une seule catégorie d'écriture (liée ou scripte) est plus efficace que l'enseignement de deux catégories d'écriture scripte en début d'apprentissage et écriture liée dans un second temps. Un enseignement régulier et intensif consacré à l'écriture au début de la scolarité va permettre une acquisition plus rapide de l'écriture et de la lecture (Graham & Weintraub, 1996 ; Denton, Cope & Moser, 2006). Selon Berninger, Abbot, Abbot, Graham et Richards (2002), la lecture et l'écriture devraient faire l'objet d'un enseignement coordonné et harmonisé. L'enseignement de l'écriture favorisant les liens avec les contextes d'utilisation de l'écriture montre une efficacité plus grande que lorsqu'il est déconnecté de son contexte (Denton, Cope, & Moser, 2006). L'enjeu d'une automatisation de l'écriture de qualité est important et relève d'une priorité afin de permettre aux enfants de développer de manière optimale leurs compétences académiques. Lorsque des troubles d'écriture sont constatés, l'identification des causes liées à ces difficultés tout comme une prise en charge spécifique faciliteront l'acquisition de cette compétence fondamentale (Berninger et al., 1997). Dans ces perspectives, cette thèse vise à identifier les facteurs endogènes et les facteurs exogènes intervenant dans l'écriture manuelle, que ce soit au niveau de la qualité ou de la vitesse de l'écriture. Au niveau théorique, elle développe l'étai des connaissances dans le domaine de l'écriture en neuropsychologie, en neurosciences et en sciences du mouvement humain. Elle présente, dans une perspective développementale, les modèles de l'apprentissage de l'écriture ainsi que les étapes d'acquisition de l'écriture tout en considérant les différences liées au genre. Ensuite, la description des difficultés d'écriture manuelle précède les moyens d'évaluation de l'écriture. Un chapitre est consacré aux fonctions perceptivomotrices et cognitives influençant l'écriture. Puis, comme les difficultés d'acquisition de l'écriture manuelle font partie du TAC, ce trouble est développé dans le chapitre 5. Enfin, les facteurs exogènes sont présentés dans le chapitre 6, ils comprennent les conditions environnementales (position de l'enfant, types de papiers, types d'outils scripteurs) ainsi que les dimensions d'un programme d'enseignement de l'écriture manuelle. Les effets des programmes de remédiation ou d'enseignement intensif de l'écriture sont traités en dernière partie du chapitre 6. Cette thèse est composée d'une partie de recherche fondamentale et d'une partie de recherche appliquée. La recherche fondamentale, qui comprend deux étapes d'investigation (Etudes 1 et 2), a pour objectifs d'identifier les facteurs endogènes prédictifs d'une écriture manuelle non performante (dextérités digitale et manuelle, intégration visuomotrice ou visuoperception) et d'investiguer les relations entre la lecture, l'attention visuelle, la mémoire audtive et l'écriture manuelle. De plus, elle déterminera la prévalence du TAC parmi les enfants présentant une faible écriture manuelle. La recherche appliquée comporte deux expérimentations. La première expérience a pour but de mesurer les effets d'un programme d'enseignement de l'écriture introduit en fin de deuxième année primaire visant à permettre aux enfants les plus faibles dans le domaine de l'écriture d'améliorer leurs performances. La seconde expérience analyse les effets d'un programme d'enseignement intensif de l'écriture manuelle qui s'est déroulé au début de la première année de scolarité obligatoire. L'acquisition de l'écriture est complexe tant au niveau du contróle moteur que du codage phonème -graphème ou de l'attention. L'écriture manuelle, en tant que compétence de base dans le développement des acquisitions scolaires, demeure tout au long de la scolarité et de la vie professionnelle, une compétence incontournable malgré le développement des nouvelles technologies. Remplir un formulaire, prendre des notes dans une séance ou à un cours, signer des documents, consigner des notes dans des dossiers, utiliser des écrans tactiles constituent des activités nécessitant une écriture manuelle fonctionnelle.

Regulatory assessment of in vitro skin corrosion and irritation data within the European framework: Workshop recommendations

Validated in vitro methods for skin corrosion and irritation were adopted by the OECD and by the European Union during the last decade. In the EU, Switzerland and countries adopting the EU legislation, these assays may allow the full replacement of animal testing for identifying and classifying compounds as skin corrosives, skin irritants, and non irritants. In order to develop harmonised recommendations on the use of in vitro data for regulatory assessment purposes within the European framework, a workshop was organized by the Swiss Federal Office of Public Health together with ECVAM and the BfR. It comprised stakeholders from various European countries involved in the process from in vitro testing to the regulatory assessment of in vitro data. Discussions addressed the following questions: (1) the information requirements considered useful for regulatory assessment; (2) the applicability of in vitro skin corrosion data to assign the corrosive subcategories as implemented by the EU Classification, Labelling and Packaging Regulation; (3) the applicability of testing strategies for determining skin corrosion and irritation hazards; and (4) the applicability of the adopted in vitro assays to test mixtures, preparations and dilutions. Overall, a number of agreements and recommendations were achieved in order to clarify and facilitate the assessment and use of in vitro data from regulatory accepted methods, and ultimately help regulators and scientists facing with the new in vitro approaches to evaluate skin irritation and corrosion hazards and risks without animal data.

Serum ficolin-2 correlates worse than fecal calprotectin and CRP with endoscopic Crohn's disease activity.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Ficolin-2 is an acute phase reactant produced by the liver and targeted to recognize N-acetyl-glucosamine which is present in bacterial and fungal cell walls. We recently showed that ficolin-2 serum levels were significantly higher in CD patients compared to healthy controls. We aimed to evaluate serum ficolin-2 concentrations in CD patients regarding their correlation with endoscopic severity and to compare them with clinical activity, fecal calprotectin, and CRP. METHODS: Patients provided fecal and blood samples before undergoing ileo-colonoscopy. Disease activity was scored clinically according to the Harvey-Bradshaw Index (HBI) and endoscopically according to the simplified endoscopic score for CD (SES-CD). Ficolin-2 serum levels and fecal calprotectin levels were measured by ELISA. RESULTS: A total of 136 CD patients were prospectively included (mean age at inclusion 41.5±15.4 years, 37.5% females). Median HBI was 3 [2-6] points, median SES-CD was 5 [2-8], median fecal calprotectin was 301 [120-703] μg/g, and median serum ficolin-2 was 2.69 [2.02-3.83] μg/mL. SES-CD correlated significantly with calprotectin (R=0.676, P<0.001), CRP (R=0.458, P<0.001), HBI (R=0.385, P<0.001), and serum ficolin-2 levels (R=0.171, P=0.047). Ficolin-2 levels were higher in CD patients with mild endoscopic disease compared to patients in endoscopic remission (P=0.015) but no difference was found between patients with mild, moderate, and severe endoscopic disease. CONCLUSIONS: Ficolin-2 serum levels correlate worse with endoscopic CD activity when compared to fecal calprotectin or CRP.

Predicting clinical scores from magnetic resonance scans in Alzheimer's disease.

Machine learning and pattern recognition methods have been used to diagnose Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) from individual MRI scans. Another application of such methods is to predict clinical scores from individual scans. Using relevance vector regression (RVR), we predicted individuals' performances on established tests from their MRI T1 weighted image in two independent data sets. From Mayo Clinic, 73 probable AD patients and 91 cognitively normal (CN) controls completed the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Dementia Rating Scale (DRS), and Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) within 3months of their scan. Baseline MRI's from the Alzheimer's disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) comprised the other data set; 113 AD, 351 MCI, and 122 CN subjects completed the MMSE and Alzheimer's Disease Assessment Scale-Cognitive subtest (ADAS-cog) and 39 AD, 92 MCI, and 32 CN ADNI subjects completed MMSE, ADAS-cog, and AVLT. Predicted and actual clinical scores were highly correlated for the MMSE, DRS, and ADAS-cog tests (P<0.0001). Training with one data set and testing with another demonstrated stability between data sets. DRS, MMSE, and ADAS-Cog correlated better than AVLT with whole brain grey matter changes associated with AD. This result underscores their utility for screening and tracking disease. RVR offers a novel way to measure interactions between structural changes and neuropsychological tests beyond that of univariate methods. In clinical practice, we envision using RVR to aid in diagnosis and predict clinical outcome.

Financial Markets and Real Ecinomy: Four Essays in International Trade

Financial markets play an important role in an economy performing various functions like mobilizing and pooling savings, producing information about investment opportunities, screening and monitoring investments, implementation of corporate governance, diversification and management of risk. These functions influence saving rates, investment decisions, technological innovation and, therefore, have important implications for welfare. In my PhD dissertation I examine the interplay of financial and product markets by looking at different channels through which financial markets may influence an economy.My dissertation consists of four chapters. The first chapter is a co-authored work with Martin Strieborny, a PhD student from the University of Lausanne. The second chapter is a co-authored work with Melise Jaud, a PhD student from the Paris School of Economics. The third chapter is co-authored with both Melise Jaud and Martin Strieborny. The last chapter of my PhD dissertation is a single author paper.Chapter 1 of my PhD thesis analyzes the effect of financial development on growth of contract intensive industries. These industries intensively use intermediate inputs that neither can be sold on organized exchange, nor are reference-priced (Levchenko, 2007; Nunn, 2007). A typical example of a contract intensive industry would be an industry where an upstream supplier has to make investments in order to customize a product for needs of a downstream buyer. After the investment is made and the product is adjusted, the buyer may refuse to meet a commitment and trigger ex post renegotiation. Since the product is customized to the buyer's needs, the supplier cannot sell the product to a different buyer at the original price. This is referred in the literature as the holdup problem. As a consequence, the individually rational suppliers will underinvest into relationship-specific assets, hurting the downstream firms with negative consequences for aggregate growth. The standard way to mitigate the hold up problem is to write a binding contract and to rely on the legal enforcement by the state. However, even the most effective contract enforcement might fail to protect the supplier in tough times when the buyer lacks a reliable source of external financing. This suggests the potential role of financial intermediaries, banks in particular, in mitigating the incomplete contract problem. First, financial products like letters of credit and letters of guarantee can substantially decrease a risk and transaction costs of parties. Second, a bank loan can serve as a signal about a buyer's true financial situation, an upstream firm will be more willing undertake relationship-specific investment knowing that the business partner is creditworthy and will abstain from myopic behavior (Fama, 1985; von Thadden, 1995). Therefore, a well-developed financial (especially banking) system should disproportionately benefit contract intensive industries.The empirical test confirms this hypothesis. Indeed, contract intensive industries seem to grow faster in countries with a well developed financial system. Furthermore, this effect comes from a more developed banking sector rather than from a deeper stock market. These results are reaffirmed examining the effect of US bank deregulation on the growth of contract intensive industries in different states. Beyond an overall pro-growth effect, the bank deregulation seems to disproportionately benefit the industries requiring relationship-specific investments from their suppliers.Chapter 2 of my PhD focuses on the role of the financial sector in promoting exports of developing countries. In particular, it investigates how credit constraints affect the ability of firms operating in agri-food sectors of developing countries to keep exporting to foreign markets.Trade in high-value agri-food products from developing countries has expanded enormously over the last two decades offering opportunities for development. However, trade in agri-food is governed by a growing array of standards. Sanitary and Phytosanitary standards (SPS) and technical regulations impose additional sunk, fixed and operating costs along the firms' export life. Such costs may be detrimental to firms' survival, "pricing out" producers that cannot comply. The existence of these costs suggests a potential role of credit constraints in shaping the duration of trade relationships on foreign markets. A well-developed financial system provides the funds to exporters necessary to adjust production processes in order to meet quality and quantity requirements in foreign markets and to maintain long-standing trade relationships. The products with higher needs for financing should benefit the most from a well functioning financial system. This differential effect calls for a difference-in-difference approach initially proposed by Rajan and Zingales (1998). As a proxy for demand for financing of agri-food products, the sanitary risk index developed by Jaud et al. (2009) is used. The empirical literature on standards and norms show high costs of compliance, both variable and fixed, for high-value food products (Garcia-Martinez and Poole, 2004; Maskus et al., 2005). The sanitary risk index reflects the propensity of products to fail health and safety controls on the European Union (EU) market. Given the high costs of compliance, the sanitary risk index captures the demand for external financing to comply with such regulations.The prediction is empirically tested examining the export survival of different agri-food products from firms operating in Ghana, Mali, Malawi, Senegal and Tanzania. The results suggest that agri-food products that require more financing to keep up with food safety regulation of the destination market, indeed sustain longer in foreign market, when they are exported from countries with better developed financial markets.Chapter 3 analyzes the link between financial markets and efficiency of resource allocation in an economy. Producing and exporting products inconsistent with a country's factor endowments constitutes a serious misallocation of funds, which undermines competitiveness of the economy and inhibits its long term growth. In this chapter, inefficient exporting patterns are analyzed through the lens of the agency theories from the corporate finance literature. Managers may pursue projects with negative net present values because their perquisites or even their job might depend on them. Exporting activities are particularly prone to this problem. Business related to foreign markets involves both high levels of additional spending and strong incentives for managers to overinvest. Rational managers might have incentives to push for exports that use country's scarce factors which is suboptimal from a social point of view. Export subsidies might further skew the incentives towards inefficient exporting. Management can divert the export subsidies into investments promoting inefficient exporting.Corporate finance literature stresses the disciplining role of outside debt in counteracting the internal pressures to divert such "free cash flow" into unprofitable investments. Managers can lose both their reputation and the control of "their" firm if the unpaid external debt triggers a bankruptcy procedure. The threat of possible failure to satisfy debt service payments pushes the managers toward an efficient use of available resources (Jensen, 1986; Stulz, 1990; Hart and Moore, 1995). The main sources of debt financing in the most countries are banks. The disciplining role of banks might be especially important in the countries suffering from insufficient judicial quality. Banks, in pursuing their rights, rely on comparatively simple legal interventions that can be implemented even by mediocre courts. In addition to their disciplining role, banks can promote efficient exporting patterns in a more direct way by relaxing credit constraints of producers, through screening, identifying and investing in the most profitable investment projects. Therefore, a well-developed domestic financial system, and particular banking system, would help to push a country's exports towards products congruent with its comparative advantage.This prediction is tested looking at the survival of different product categories exported to US market. Products are identified according to the Euclidian distance between their revealed factor intensity and the country's factor endowments. The results suggest that products suffering from a comparative disadvantage (labour-intensive products from capital-abundant countries) survive less on the competitive US market. This pattern is stronger if the exporting country has a well-developed banking system. Thus, a strong banking sector promotes exports consistent with a country comparative advantage.Chapter 4 of my PhD thesis further examines the role of financial markets in fostering efficient resource allocation in an economy. In particular, the allocative efficiency hypothesis is investigated in the context of equity market liberalization.Many empirical studies document a positive and significant effect of financial liberalization on growth (Levchenko et al. 2009; Quinn and Toyoda 2009; Bekaert et al., 2005). However, the decrease in the cost of capital and the associated growth in investment appears rather modest in comparison to the large GDP growth effect (Bekaert and Harvey, 2005; Henry, 2000, 2003). Therefore, financial liberalization may have a positive impact on growth through its effect on the allocation of funds across firms and sectors.Free access to international capital markets allows the largest and most profitable domestic firms to borrow funds in foreign markets (Rajan and Zingales, 2003). As domestic banks loose some of their best clients, they reoptimize their lending practices seeking new clients among small and younger industrial firms. These firms are likely to be more risky than large and established companies. Screening of customers becomes prevalent as the return to screening rises. Banks, ceteris paribus, tend to focus on firms operating in comparative-advantage sectors because they are better risks. Firms in comparative-disadvantage sectors finding it harder to finance their entry into or survival in export markets either exit or refrain from entering export markets. On aggregate, one should therefore expect to see less entry, more exit, and shorter survival on export markets in those sectors after financial liberalization.The paper investigates the effect of financial liberalization on a country's export pattern by comparing the dynamics of entry and exit of different products in a country export portfolio before and after financial liberalization.The results suggest that products that lie far from the country's comparative advantage set tend to disappear relatively faster from the country's export portfolio following the liberalization of financial markets. In other words, financial liberalization tends to rebalance the composition of a country's export portfolio towards the products that intensively use the economy's abundant factors.

Computerized advice on drug dosage to improve prescribing practice.

BACKGROUND: Maintaining therapeutic concentrations of drugs with a narrow therapeutic window is a complex task. Several computer systems have been designed to help doctors determine optimum drug dosage. Significant improvements in health care could be achieved if computer advice improved health outcomes and could be implemented in routine practice in a cost effective fashion. This is an updated version of an earlier Cochrane systematic review, by Walton et al, published in 2001. OBJECTIVES: To assess whether computerised advice on drug dosage has beneficial effects on the process or outcome of health care. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the Cochrane Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group specialized register (June 1996 to December 2006), MEDLINE (1966 to December 2006), EMBASE (1980 to December 2006), hand searched the journal Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (1979 to March 2007) and the Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association (1996 to March 2007) as well as reference lists from primary articles. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomized controlled trials, controlled trials, controlled before and after studies and interrupted time series analyses of computerized advice on drug dosage were included. The participants were health professionals responsible for patient care. The outcomes were: any objectively measured change in the behaviour of the health care provider (such as changes in the dose of drug used); any change in the health of patients resulting from computerized advice (such as adverse reactions to drugs). DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed study quality. MAIN RESULTS: Twenty-six comparisons (23 articles) were included (as compared to fifteen comparisons in the original review) including a wide range of drugs in inpatient and outpatient settings. Interventions usually targeted doctors although some studies attempted to influence prescriptions by pharmacists and nurses. Although all studies used reliable outcome measures, their quality was generally low. Computerized advice for drug dosage gave significant benefits by:1.increasing the initial dose (standardised mean difference 1.12, 95% CI 0.33 to 1.92)2.increasing serum concentrations (standradised mean difference 1.12, 95% CI 0.43 to 1.82)3.reducing the time to therapeutic stabilisation (standardised mean difference -0.55, 95%CI -1.03 to -0.08)4.reducing the risk of toxic drug level (rate ratio 0.45, 95% CI 0.30 to 0.70)5.reducing the length of hospital stay (standardised mean difference -0.35, 95% CI -0.52 to -0.17). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: This review suggests that computerized advice for drug dosage has some benefits: it increased the initial dose of drug, increased serum drug concentrations and led to a more rapid therapeutic control. It also reduced the risk of toxic drug levels and the length of time spent in the hospital. However, it had no effect on adverse reactions. In addition, there was no evidence to suggest that some decision support technical features (such as its integration into a computer physician order entry system) or aspects of organization of care (such as the setting) could optimise the effect of computerised advice.

Initial experiences with in vivo right coronary artery human MR vessel wall imaging at 3 tesla.

Due to their relatively small size and central location within the thorax, improvement in signal-to-noise (SNR) is of paramount importance for in vivo coronary vessel wall imaging. Thus, with higher field strengths, coronary vessel wall imaging is likely to benefit from the expected "near linear" proportional gain in SNR. In this study, we demonstrate the feasibility of in vivo human high field (3 T) coronary vessel wall imaging using a free-breathing black blood fast gradient echo technique with respiratory navigator gating and real-time motion correction. With the broader availability of more SNR efficient fast spin echo and spiral techniques, further improvements can be expected.

Automatic classification of MR scans in Alzheimer's disease.

To be diagnostically useful, structural MRI must reliably distinguish Alzheimer's disease (AD) from normal aging in individual scans. Recent advances in statistical learning theory have led to the application of support vector machines to MRI for detection of a variety of disease states. The aims of this study were to assess how successfully support vector machines assigned individual diagnoses and to determine whether data-sets combined from multiple scanners and different centres could be used to obtain effective classification of scans. We used linear support vector machines to classify the grey matter segment of T1-weighted MR scans from pathologically proven AD patients and cognitively normal elderly individuals obtained from two centres with different scanning equipment. Because the clinical diagnosis of mild AD is difficult we also tested the ability of support vector machines to differentiate control scans from patients without post-mortem confirmation. Finally we sought to use these methods to differentiate scans between patients suffering from AD from those with frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Up to 96% of pathologically verified AD patients were correctly classified using whole brain images. Data from different centres were successfully combined achieving comparable results from the separate analyses. Importantly, data from one centre could be used to train a support vector machine to accurately differentiate AD and normal ageing scans obtained from another centre with different subjects and different scanner equipment. Patients with mild, clinically probable AD and age/sex matched controls were correctly separated in 89% of cases which is compatible with published diagnosis rates in the best clinical centres. This method correctly assigned 89% of patients with post-mortem confirmed diagnosis of either AD or frontotemporal lobar degeneration to their respective group. Our study leads to three conclusions: Firstly, support vector machines successfully separate patients with AD from healthy aging subjects. Secondly, they perform well in the differential diagnosis of two different forms of dementia. Thirdly, the method is robust and can be generalized across different centres. This suggests an important role for computer based diagnostic image analysis for clinical practice.

Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008.

OBJECTIVE: To provide an update to the original Surviving Sepsis Campaign clinical management guidelines, "Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock," published in 2004. DESIGN: Modified Delphi method with a consensus conference of 55 international experts, several subsequent meetings of subgroups and key individuals, teleconferences, and electronic-based discussion among subgroups and among the entire committee. This process was conducted independently of any industry funding. METHODS: We used the GRADE system to guide assessment of quality of evidence from high (A) to very low (D) and to determine the strength of recommendations. A strong recommendation indicates that an intervention's desirable effects clearly outweigh its undesirable effects (risk, burden, cost), or clearly do not. Weak recommendations indicate that the tradeoff between desirable and undesirable effects is less clear. The grade of strong or weak is considered of greater clinical importance than a difference in letter level of quality of evidence. In areas without complete agreement, a formal process of resolution was developed and applied. Recommendations are grouped into those directly targeting severe sepsis, recommendations targeting general care of the critically ill patient that are considered high priority in severe sepsis, and pediatric considerations. RESULTS: Key recommendations, listed by category, include: early goal-directed resuscitation of the septic patient during the first 6 hrs after recognition (1C); blood cultures prior to antibiotic therapy (1C); imaging studies performed promptly to confirm potential source of infection (1C); administration of broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy within 1 hr of diagnosis of septic shock (1B) and severe sepsis without septic shock (1D); reassessment of antibiotic therapy with microbiology and clinical data to narrow coverage, when appropriate (1C); a usual 7-10 days of antibiotic therapy guided by clinical response (1D); source control with attention to the balance of risks and benefits of the chosen method (1C); administration of either crystalloid or colloid fluid resuscitation (1B); fluid challenge to restore mean circulating filling pressure (1C); reduction in rate of fluid administration with rising filing pressures and no improvement in tissue perfusion (1D); vasopressor preference for norepinephrine or dopamine to maintain an initial target of mean arterial pressure > or = 65 mm Hg (1C); dobutamine inotropic therapy when cardiac output remains low despite fluid resuscitation and combined inotropic/vasopressor therapy (1C); stress-dose steroid therapy given only in septic shock after blood pressure is identified to be poorly responsive to fluid and vasopressor therapy (2C); recombinant activated protein C in patients with severe sepsis and clinical assessment of high risk for death (2B except 2C for post-operative patients). In the absence of tissue hypoperfusion, coronary artery disease, or acute hemorrhage, target a hemoglobin of 7-9 g/dL (1B); a low tidal volume (1B) and limitation of inspiratory plateau pressure strategy (1C) for acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS); application of at least a minimal amount of positive end-expiratory pressure in acute lung injury (1C); head of bed elevation in mechanically ventilated patients unless contraindicated (1B); avoiding routine use of pulmonary artery catheters in ALI/ARDS (1A); to decrease days of mechanical ventilation and ICU length of stay, a conservative fluid strategy for patients with established ALI/ARDS who are not in shock (1C); protocols for weaning and sedation/analgesia (1B); using either intermittent bolus sedation or continuous infusion sedation with daily interruptions or lightening (1B); avoidance of neuromuscular blockers, if at all possible (1B); institution of glycemic control (1B) targeting a blood glucose < 150 mg/dL after initial stabilization ( 2C ); equivalency of continuous veno-veno hemofiltration or intermittent hemodialysis (2B); prophylaxis for deep vein thrombosis (1A); use of stress ulcer prophylaxis to prevent upper GI bleeding using H2 blockers (1A) or proton pump inhibitors (1B); and consideration of limitation of support where appropriate (1D). Recommendations specific to pediatric severe sepsis include: greater use of physical examination therapeutic end points (2C); dopamine as the first drug of choice for hypotension (2C); steroids only in children with suspected or proven adrenal insufficiency (2C); a recommendation against the use of recombinant activated protein C in children (1B). CONCLUSION: There was strong agreement among a large cohort of international experts regarding many level 1 recommendations for the best current care of patients with severe sepsis. Evidenced-based recommendations regarding the acute management of sepsis and septic shock are the first step toward improved outcomes for this important group of critically ill patients.

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling of arsenic in the mouse

A remarkable feature of the carcinogenicity of inorganic arsenic is that while human exposures to high concentrations of inorganic arsenic in drinking water are associated with increases in skin, lung, and bladder cancer, inorganic arsenic has not typically caused tumors in standard laboratory animal test protocols. Inorganic arsenic administered for periods of up to 2 yr to various strains of laboratory mice, including the Swiss CD-1, Swiss CR:NIH(S), C57Bl/6p53(+/-), and C57Bl/6p53(+/+), has not resulted in significant increases in tumor incidence. However, Ng et al. (1999) have reported a 40% tumor incidence in C57Bl/6J mice exposed to arsenic in their drinking water throughout their lifetime, with no tumors reported in controls. In order to investigate the potential role of tissue dosimetry in differential susceptibility to arsenic carcinogenicity, a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model for inorganic arsenic in the rat, hamster, monkey, and human (Mann et al., 1996a, 1996b) was extended to describe the kinetics in the mouse. The PBPK model was parameterized in the mouse using published data from acute exposures of B6C3F1 mice to arsenate, arsenite, monomethylarsonic acid (MMA), and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and validated using data from acute exposures of C57Black mice. Predictions of the acute model were then compared with data from chronic exposures. There was no evidence of changes in the apparent volume of distribution or in the tissue-plasma concentration ratios between acute and chronic exposure that might support the possibility of inducible arsenite efflux. The PBPK model was also used to project tissue dosimetry in the C57Bl/6J study, in comparison with tissue levels in studies having shorter duration but higher arsenic treatment concentrations. The model evaluation indicates that pharmacokinetic factors do not provide an explanation for the difference in outcomes across the various mouse bioassays. Other possible explanations may relate to strain-specific differences, or to the different durations of dosing in each of the mouse studies, given the evidence that inorganic arsenic is likely to be active in the later stages of the carcinogenic process. [Authors]