Comparison of the interobserver variability of 2 different methods of dietary assessment in a geriatric ward: a pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Protein-energy malnutrition is highly prevalent in aged populations. Associated clinical, economic, and social burden is important. A valid screening method that would be robust and precise, but also easy, simple, and rapid to apply, is essential for adequate therapeutic management. OBJECTIVES: To compare the interobserver variability of 2 methods measuring food intake: semiquantitative visual estimations made by nurses versus calorie measurements performed by dieticians on the basis of standardized color digital photographs of servings before and after consumption. DESIGN: Observational monocentric pilot study. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: A geriatric ward. The meals were randomly chosen from the meal tray. The choice was anonymous with respect to the patients who consumed them. MEASUREMENTS: The test method consisted of the estimation of calorie consumption by dieticians on the basis of standardized color digital photographs of servings before and after consumption. The reference method was based on direct visual estimations of the meals by nurses. Food intake was expressed in the form of a percentage of the serving consumed and calorie intake was then calculated by a dietician based on these percentages. The methods were applied with no previous training of the observers. Analysis of variance was performed to compare their interobserver variability. RESULTS: Of 15 meals consumed and initially examined, 6 were assessed with each method. Servings not consumed at all (0% consumption) or entirely consumed by the patient (100% consumption) were not included in the analysis so as to avoid systematic error. The digital photography method showed higher interobserver variability in calorie intake estimations. The difference between the compared methods was statistically significant (P < .03). CONCLUSIONS: Calorie intake measures for geriatric patients are more concordant when estimated in a semiquantitative way. Digital photography for food intake estimation without previous specific training of dieticians should not be considered as a reference method in geriatric settings, as it shows no advantages in terms of interobserver variability.

Inpatient diabetes care in a Swiss multi-site hospital: is there room for improvement?

Background and objective: Optimal care of diabetic patients (DPs) decreases the risk of complications. Close blood glucose monitoring can improve patient outcomes and shorten hospital stay. The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate the treatment of hospitalized DPs according to the current standards, including their diabetic treatment and drugs to prevent diabetes related complications [=guardian drugs: angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) or Angiotensin II Receptor Blockers (ARB), antiplatelet drugs, statins]. Guidelines of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) [1] were used as reference as they were the most recent and exhaustive for hospital care. Design: Observational pilot study: analysis of the medical records of all DPs seen by the clinical pharmacists during medical rounds in different hospital units. An assessment was made by assigning points for fulfilling the different criteria according to ADA and then by dividing the total by the maximum achievable points (scale 0-1; 1 = all criteria fulfilled). Setting: Different Internal Medicine and Geriatric Units of the (multi-site) Ho^pital du Valais. Main outcome measures: - Completeness of diabetes-related information: type of diabetes, medical history, weight, albuminuria status, renal function, blood pressure, (recent) lipid profile. - Management of blood glucose: Hb1Ac, glycemic control, plan for treating hyper-/hypoglycaemia. - Presence of guardian drugs if indicated. Results: Medical records of 42 patients in 10 different units were analysed (18 women, 24 men, mean age 75.4 ± 11 years). 41 had type 2 diabetes. - Completeness of diabetes-related information: 0.8 ± 0.1. Information often missing: insulin-dependence (43%) and lipid profile (86%). - Management of blood glucose: 0.5 ± 0.2. 15 patients had suboptimal glycemic balance (target glycaemia 7.2-11.2 mmol/ l, with values[11.2 or\3.8 mmol/l, or Hb1Ac[7%), 10 patients had a deregulated balance (more than 10 values[11.2 mmol/l or \3.8 mmol/l and even values[15 mmol/l). - Presence of guardian drugs if indicated: ACEI/ARB: 19 of 23 patients (82.6%), statin: 16 of 40 patients (40%), antiplatelet drug: 16 of 39 patients (41%). Conclusions: Blood glucose control was insufficient in many DPs and prescription of statins and antiplatelet drugs was often missing. If confirmed by a larger study, these two points need to be optimised. As it is not always possible and appropriate to make those changes during hospital stay, a further project should assess and optimise diabetes care across both inpatient and outpatient settings.

Lessons From the Swiss Medical Board Recommendation Against Mammography Screening Programs

When the US Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) in 2009 recommended against universal breast cancer screening with mammography in women aged 40 to 49 years, some scientists, radiologists, politicians, and patients strongly objected. The controversy has been called the "mammography wars." The latest chapter in these wars comes from the Swiss Medical Board, which is mandated by the Conference of Health Ministers of the Swiss Cantons, the Swiss Medical Association, and the Swiss Academy of Medical Sciences to conduct health technology assessments. In a February 2014 report, the Swiss Medical Board stated that new systematic mammography screening programs should not be introduced, irrespective of the age of the women, and that existing programs should be discontinued. The board's main argument was that the absolute reduction in breast cancer mortality was low and that the adverse consequences of the screening were substantial. The absolute risk reduction in breast cancer mortality has been estimated by the board at 0.16% for women screened during 6.2 years and followed-up over 13 years, based on the results of a recent Cochrane Review. The adverse consequences include falsepositive test results, overdiagnosis and overtreatment of patients, and high costs, including the expense of follow-up testing and procedures.

Evidence-Based Recommendations for Optimal Dietary Protein Intake in Older People: A Position Paper From the PROT-AGE Study Group.

New evidence shows that older adults need more dietary protein than do younger adults to support good health, promote recovery from illness, and maintain functionality. Older people need to make up for age-related changes in protein metabolism, such as high splanchnic extraction and declining anabolic responses to ingested protein. They also need more protein to offset inflammatory and catabolic conditions associated with chronic and acute diseases that occur commonly with aging. With the goal of developing updated, evidence-based recommendations for optimal protein intake by older people, the European Union Geriatric Medicine Society (EUGMS), in cooperation with other scientific organizations, appointed an international study group to review dietary protein needs with aging (PROT-AGE Study Group). To help older people (>65 years) maintain and regain lean body mass and function, the PROT-AGE study group recommends average daily intake at least in the range of 1.0 to 1.2 g protein per kilogram of body weight per day. Both endurance- and resistance-type exercises are recommended at individualized levels that are safe and tolerated, and higher protein intake (ie, ≥1.2 g/kg body weight/d) is advised for those who are exercising and otherwise active. Most older adults who have acute or chronic diseases need even more dietary protein (ie, 1.2-1.5 g/kg body weight/d). Older people with severe kidney disease (ie, estimated GFR <30 mL/min/1.73m(2)), but who are not on dialysis, are an exception to this rule; these individuals may need to limit protein intake. Protein quality, timing of ingestion, and intake of other nutritional supplements may be relevant, but evidence is not yet sufficient to support specific recommendations. Older people are vulnerable to losses in physical function capacity, and such losses predict loss of independence, falls, and even mortality. Thus, future studies aimed at pinpointing optimal protein intake in specific populations of older people need to include measures of physical function.

Fallers in postacute rehabilitation have worse functional recovery and increased health services use.

OBJECTIVES: To determine characteristics associated with single and multiple fallers during postacute rehabilitation and to investigate the relationship among falls, rehabilitation outcomes, and health services use. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: Geriatric postacute rehabilitation hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Patients (n = 4026) consecutively admitted over a 5-year period (2003-2007). MEASUREMENTS: All falls during hospitalization were prospectively recorded. Collected patients' characteristics included health, functional, cognitive, and affective status data. Length of stay and discharge destination were retrieved from the administrative database. RESULTS: During rehabilitation stay, 11.4% (458/4026) of patients fell once and an additional 6.3% (253/4026) fell several times. Compared with nonfallers, fallers were older and more frequently men. They were globally frailer, with lower Barthel score and more comorbidities, cognitive impairment, and depressive symptoms. In multivariate analyses, compared with 1-time fallers, multiple fallers were more likely to have lower Barthel score (adjOR: 2.45, 95% CI: 1.48-4.07; P = .001), cognitive impairment (adjOR: 1.43, 95% CI: 1.04-1.96; P = .026), and to have been admitted from a medicine ward (adjOR: 1.55, 95% CI: 1.03-2.32; P = .035). Odds of poor functional recovery and institutionalization at discharge, as well as length of stay, increased incrementally from nonfallers to 1-time and to multiple fallers. CONCLUSION: In these patients admitted to postacute rehabilitation, the proportion of fallers and multiple fallers was high. Multiple fallers were particularly at risk of poor functional recovery and increased health services use. Specific fall prevention programs targeting high-risk patients with cognitive impairment and low functional status should be developed in further studies.

Pharmacological treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in nursing homes: development of practice recommendations in a Swiss canton

OBJECTIVES: In 2002, the canton of Fribourg, Switzerland, implemented a coordinated pharmaceutical care service in nursing homes to promote rational drug use. In the context of this service, a project was conducted to develop recommendations for the pharmacological management of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in nursing home residents. DESIGN AND METHODS: Selected evidence-based guidelines and meta-analysis sources related to the management of depression, insomnia, and agitation in dementia patients were systematically searched and evaluated. Evidence and controversies regarding the pharmacological treatment of the most common BPSD symptoms were reviewed, and treatment algorithms were developed. RESULTS: Ten evidence-based guidelines and meta-analyses for BPSD management were identified, with none specifically addressing issues related to nursing home residents. Based on this literature, recommendations were developed for the practice of pharmacological management of depression, sleep disturbances, and agitation in nursing home residents. For depression, SSRIs are considered the first choice if an antidepressant is required. No clear evidence has been found for sleep disturbances; the underlying conditions need to be investigated closely before the introduction of any drug therapy. Many drugs have been investigated for the treatment of agitation, and if necessary, antipsychotics could be used, although they have significant side effects. Several areas of uncertainty were identified, such as the current controversy about typical and atypical antipsychotic use or the appropriateness of cholinesterase inhibitors for controlling agitation. Treatment algorithms were presented to general practitioners, pharmacists, and medical directors of nursing homes in the canton of Fribourg, and will now be implemented progressively, using educational sessions, pharmaceutical counseling, and monitoring. CONCLUSION: Based on existing evidence-based studies, recommendations were developed for the practice of pharmacological management of depression, sleep disturbances, and agitation in nursing home residents. It should be further studied whether these algorithms implemented through pharmaceutical care services will improve psychotropic drug prescriptions and prevent drug-related problems in nursing home residents

New diagnoses of dementia among older patients admitted to postacute care.

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of dementia and the proportion of undiagnosed dementia in elderly patients admitted to postacute care, and to identify patients' characteristics associated with undiagnosed dementia. Design: Cross-sectional study. Setting: Academic postacute rehabilitation facility in Lausanne, Switzerland. Participants: Patients (N = 1764) aged 70 years and older. Measurements: Data on socio-demographic, medical, functional, and affective status were collected upon admission. Data on cognitive performance (Mini-Mental State Exam [MMSE]), and cognition-related discharge diagnoses were abstracted through a structured review of discharge summaries. Results: Overall, 24.1% (425/1764) patients had a diagnosis of dementia, most frequently secondary to Alzheimer's disease (260/425, 61.2%). Among dementia cases, 70.8% (301/425) were newly diagnosed during postacute stay. This proportion was lower among patients referred from internal medicine than from orthopedic/surgery services (65.8% versus 74.8%, P = .042). Compared to patients with already diagnosed dementia, those newly diagnosed were older, lived alone more frequently, and had better functional status and MMSE score at admission (all P < .05). In multivariate analysis, previously undetected dementia remained associated with older age (OR = 2.4 for age 85 years and older, 95% CI 1.5-4.0, P = .001) and normal MMSE at admission (OR = 5.9, 95% CI 2.7-12.7, P < .001). Conclusion: Dementia was present in almost a fourth of elderly patients referred to postacute care, but was diagnosed in less than a third before admission. Oldest old patients appear especially at risk for underrecognition. These results emphasize the high diagnostic yield of systematic cognitive assessment in the postacute care setting to improve these patients' management and quality of life.

Long-term miR-669a therapy alleviates chronic dilated cardiomyopathy in dystrophic mice.

BACKGROUND: Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is a leading cause of chronic morbidity and mortality in muscular dystrophy (MD) patients. Current pharmacological treatments are not yet able to counteract chronic myocardial wastage, thus novel therapies are being intensely explored. MicroRNAs have been implicated as fine regulators of cardiomyopathic progression. Previously, miR-669a downregulation has been linked to the severe DCM progression displayed by Sgcb-null dystrophic mice. However, the impact of long-term overexpression of miR-669a on muscle structure and functionality of the dystrophic heart is yet unknown. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, we demonstrate that intraventricular delivery of adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors induces long-term (18 months) miR-669a overexpression and improves survival of Sgcb-null mice. Treated hearts display significant decrease in hypertrophic remodeling, fibrosis, and cardiomyocyte apoptosis. Moreover, miR-669a treatment increases sarcomere organization, reduces ventricular atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) levels, and ameliorates gene/miRNA profile of DCM markers. Furthermore, long-term miR-669a overexpression significantly reduces adverse remodeling and enhances systolic fractional shortening of the left ventricle in treated dystrophic mice, without significant detrimental consequences on skeletal muscle wastage. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings provide the first evidence of long-term beneficial impact of AAV-mediated miRNA therapy in a transgenic model of severe, chronic MD-associated DCM.

Elevated blood pressure prevalence in children did not follow the increase in overweight: results from a school-based study in a rapidly developing country, 1998-2006

Background: Blood pressure (BP) is strongly associated with body weight and there is concern that the pediatric overweight epidemic could lead to an increase in children's mean BP. Objectives: We analyzed BP trends from 1998 to 2006 among children of the Seychelles, a rapidly developing middle-income country in Africa. Methods: Serial school-based surveys of weight, height and BP were conducted yearly between 1998-2006 among all students of the country in four school grades (kindergarten, 4th, 7th and 10th years of compulsory school). We used the CDC criteria to define "overweight" (BMI _95th sex-, and age-specific percentile) and the NHBPEP criteria for "elevated BP" (BP _95th sex-, age-, and height specific percentile). Methods for height, weight, and BP measurements were identical over the study period. The trends in mean BMI and mean systolic/diastolic BP were assessed with linear regression. Results: 27,703 children aged 4-18 years (participation rate: 79%) contributed 43,927 observations on weight, height, and BP. The prevalence of overweight increased from 5.1% in 1998-2000 to 8.1% in 2004-2006 among boys, and from 6.1% to 9.1% among girls, respectively. The prevalence of elevated BP was 8.4% in 1998-2000 and 6.9% in 2004-2006 among boys; 9.8% and 7.8% among girls, respectively. Over the 9-years study period, age-adjusted body mass index (BMI) increased by 0.078 kg/m2/year in boys and by 0.083 kg/m2/year in girls (both sexes, P_0.001). Age- and height-adjusted systolic BP decreased by -0.37 mmHg/year in boys and by -0.34 mmHg/year in girls (both sexes, P_0.001). Diastolic BP did not change in boys (-0.02 mmHg/year, P: 0.40) and slightly increased in girls (0.07 mmHg/year, P: 0.003). These trend estimates were altered modestly upon further adjustment for BMI or if analyses were based on median rather than mean values. Conclusion: Although body weight increased markedly between 1998 and 2006 in this population, systolic BP decreased and diastolic BP changed only marginally. This suggests that population increases in body weight are not necessarily associated with corresponding rises in BP in children.

Serum Leptin Concentration, Body Mass Index and Incident Heart Failure: The Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study

Background: Leptin is produced primarily by adipocytes. Although originally associated with the central regulation of satiety and energy metabolism, increasing evidence indicates that leptin may be an important factor for congestive heart faire (CHF). In the study, we aimed to test the hypothesis that leptin may influence CHF pathophysiology via a pathway of increasing body mass index (BMI). Methods: We studied 2,389 elderly participants aged 70 and older (M; 1161, F: 1228) without CHF and with serum leptin measures at the Health Aging, and Body Composition study. We analyzed the association between serum leptin level and risk of incident CHF using Cox hazard proportional regression models. Elevated leptin level was defined as more than the highest quartile (Q4) of leptin distribution in the total sample for each gender. Adjusted-covariates included demographic, behavior, lipid and inflammation variables (partially-adjusted models), and further included BMI (fully-adjusted models). Results: In a mean 9-year follow-up, 316 participants (13.2%) developed CHF. The partially-adjusted models indicated that men and women with elevated serum leptin levels (>=9.89 ng/ml in men and >=25 ng/ml in women) had significantly higher risks of developing CHF than those with leptin level of less than Q4. The adjusted hazard ratios (95%CI) for incident CHF was 1.49 (1.04 -2.13) in men and 1.71 (1.12 -2.58) in women. However, these associations became non-significant after adjustment for including BMI for each gender. The fully-adjusted hazard ratios (95%CI) were 1.43 (0.94 -2.18) in men and 1.24 (0.77-1.99) in women. Conclusion: Subjects with elevated leptin levels have a higher risk of CHF. The study supports the hypothesis that the influence of leptin level on risk of CHF may be through a pathway related to increasing BMI.

Facteurs endogènes et exogènes influençant l'écriture manuelle chez l'enfant

Introduction L'écriture manuelle fluide et automatisée constitue, avec la lecture, les fondements au développement des compétences scolaires. En effet, l'enfant peut développer le langage écrit avec l'acquisition de l'écriture, il a besoin d'une écriture manuelle automatisée lors d'évaluations scolaires écrites. De plus, la sollicitation de l'écriture manuelle augmente au cours de la scolarité, que ce soit au niveau de l'endurance, de la vitesse ou de la qualité. L'acquisition de l'écriture requiert des processus cognitifs, linguistiques et perceptivomoteurs, définis en tant que facteurs internes ou endogènes (Beeson et al., 2003) et résulte d'une démarche d'enseignement et d'un processus d'apprentissage constituant des facteurs externes ou exogènes. Les perturbations de l'acquisition de l'écriture sont nommées de différentes manières dans la littérature scientifique. Les chercheurs anglo-saxons convoquent la notion de faible écriture manuelle (poor handwriting), de troubles grapho-moteurs ou de difficultés d'écriture (Weintraub & Graham, 2000 ; Jongmans, Smits-Engelsman, & Schoemaker, 2003 ; Volman, van Schendel, &Jongmans, 2006) qui se caractérisent par une absence de régularité du tracé et/ ou de l'espace entre les mots, par des lettres ambiguës (Rosenblum, Weiss, & Parush, 2006). Les auteurs francophones, le plus souvent de formation médicale (Gubbay & de Klerk, 1995 ; Mazeau, 2005), utilisent plus fréquemment le diagnostic de dysgraphie qui renvoie à des difficultés d'assemblage de ronds et de traits pour former une lettre perturbant ainsi l'apprentissage de l'écriture (Mazeau, 2005). Selon Mazeau, la dysgraphie fait partie des troubles d'apprentissage. Les conséquences d'une faible écriture manuelle sont multiples. Si l'écriture n'est pas automatisée, l'enfant est placé dans une situation de double tâche nécessitant une attention focalisée à la fois sur l'acte d'écrire et sur le raisonnement nécessaire pour réaliser les exigences d'une tâche scolaire (Berningér et al., 1997). Si l'enfant se concentre sur la formation des lettres et le contrôle des mouvements, le raisonnement nécessaire à l'application de règles de grammaire et d'orthographe est perturbé tout comme la qualité des idées lors d'une composition. L'enfant présentant une écriture lente ne parviendra pas à finaliser son travail dans les situations de tests. Les difficultés d'écriture manuelle constituent un facteur de prédiction des troubles d'apprentissage (Harvey & Henderson, 1997 ; Simner, 1982) et elles sont fréquemment citées parmi les causes de la littératie. Car, comme le relèvent Berninger, Mizokawa et Bragg (1991), l'enfant présentant des difficultés d'écriture manuelle aura tendance à éviter toute activité d'écriture renforçant ainsi l'écart avec ses pairs dans ce domaine. Si ces comportements d'évitement se situent dans la période d'apprentissage de l'écriture, ils perturberont la mémorisation des lettres. En effet, la mémorisation des lettres est meilleure lorsque l'apprentissage se fait en situation d'écriture manuelle qu'en situation de lecture uniquement (Longcamp, Boucard, Guilhodes, & Velay, 2006). Par ailleurs, les épreuves dont la qualité de l'écriture est faible font l'objet d'évaluation moins favorable que celles dont l'écriture est plus facilement lisible. Les enseignants/es seraient alors moins persévérants/es dans leur lecture et plus sévères lors de la notation d'une rédaction. Ils, elles développeraient une faible perception des compétences en composition lorsqu'ils, elles sont confrontés/es à une épreuve dont la qualité est peu fluide et peu lisible (Alston & Taylor, 1987). L'identification des difficultés d'écriture peut se fairé de différentes manières (Kozatiek & Powell, 2002 ; Simons & Thijs, 2006 ). D'une part, l'appréciation de la qualité et de la vitesse d'écriture manuelle peut être subjective avec l'avis de l'enseignant et, d'autre part, objective avec l'utilisation de tests standardisés comportant des critères permettant de mesurer la vitesse et la qualité de l'écriture. Les conditions de passation des évaluations peuvent varier (copie, dictée ou composition) et influencer la vitesse et la qualité de l'écriture. La vitesse est moindre et la taille des lettres est inférieure en situation de composition qu'en situation de copie tandis que la régularité du tracé est plus stable en situation de copie que lors d'une composition. Si le dépistage et l'identification des difficultés d'écriture contribuent à la prévention de risques ultérieurs tels que de faibles compétence en littératie, la compréhension des causes de ces difficultés permettra le développement de moyens de remédiation de ces difficultés. Dans la littérature scientifique traitant de cette problématique, des facteurs endogènes ou exogènes peuvent être identifiés. Les facteurs endogènes regroupent autant la maturation développementale et le genre que les fonctions sensorimotrices telles que les dextérités manuelle et digitale, l'intégration visuomotrice, la visuoperception, l'attention visuelle et les fonctions cognitives. En outre, les troubles du développement tels qu'un trouble du langage, un déficit de l'attention ou un Trouble de l'acquisition de la coordination (TAC) (DSM-IV) (American Psychiatric Association, 2003) peuvent perturber l'acquisition de l'écriture. Les facteurs exogènes correspondent soit aux facteurs environnementaux tels que la position de l'enfant ou l'outil scripteur utilisé, soit aux modalités et à la durée de l'enseignement de l'écriture. En effet, la durée de l'enseignement de l'écriture et les modalités pédagogiques contribuent à marquer les différences interindividuelles pour la qualité et pour la vitesse de l'écriture. Actuellement, l'enseignement de l'écriture est, dans la plupart des programmes scolaires, intégré dans le cadre d'autres cours et ne fait pas l'objet d'un enseignement spécifique. Cette pratique entraîné un auto-apprentissage de la part de l'enfant et, par conséquent, un apprentissage implicite de l'écriture alors que les bénéfices d'un enseignement explicite ont été largement mis en évidence par Willingham et Goedert-Eschmann (1999). En effet, ces auteurs ont montré qu'un enseignement explicite favorise l'acquisition, la performance et le transfert d'apprentissage de manière plus importante que l'apprentissage implicite. Paradoxalement, alors que l'enseignement de l'écriture tend à être délaissé dans les programmes scolaires, les études mettant en évidence l'efficacité de l'enseignement de l'écriture (Berninger et al., 1997 ; Jongmans, Linthorst-Bakker, Westenberg & SmitsEngelsman et al., 2003 ; Schoemaker, Niemeijer, Reynders, & Smits-Engelsman , 2003) sont nombreuses. Leurs résultats montrent que l'enseignement d'une seule catégorie d'écriture (liée ou scripte) est plus efficace que l'enseignement de deux catégories d'écriture scripte en début d'apprentissage et écriture liée dans un second temps. Un enseignement régulier et intensif consacré à l'écriture au début de la scolarité va permettre une acquisition plus rapide de l'écriture et de la lecture (Graham & Weintraub, 1996 ; Denton, Cope & Moser, 2006). Selon Berninger, Abbot, Abbot, Graham et Richards (2002), la lecture et l'écriture devraient faire l'objet d'un enseignement coordonné et harmonisé. L'enseignement de l'écriture favorisant les liens avec les contextes d'utilisation de l'écriture montre une efficacité plus grande que lorsqu'il est déconnecté de son contexte (Denton, Cope, & Moser, 2006). L'enjeu d'une automatisation de l'écriture de qualité est important et relève d'une priorité afin de permettre aux enfants de développer de manière optimale leurs compétences académiques. Lorsque des troubles d'écriture sont constatés, l'identification des causes liées à ces difficultés tout comme une prise en charge spécifique faciliteront l'acquisition de cette compétence fondamentale (Berninger et al., 1997). Dans ces perspectives, cette thèse vise à identifier les facteurs endogènes et les facteurs exogènes intervenant dans l'écriture manuelle, que ce soit au niveau de la qualité ou de la vitesse de l'écriture. Au niveau théorique, elle développe l'étai des connaissances dans le domaine de l'écriture en neuropsychologie, en neurosciences et en sciences du mouvement humain. Elle présente, dans une perspective développementale, les modèles de l'apprentissage de l'écriture ainsi que les étapes d'acquisition de l'écriture tout en considérant les différences liées au genre. Ensuite, la description des difficultés d'écriture manuelle précède les moyens d'évaluation de l'écriture. Un chapitre est consacré aux fonctions perceptivomotrices et cognitives influençant l'écriture. Puis, comme les difficultés d'acquisition de l'écriture manuelle font partie du TAC, ce trouble est développé dans le chapitre 5. Enfin, les facteurs exogènes sont présentés dans le chapitre 6, ils comprennent les conditions environnementales (position de l'enfant, types de papiers, types d'outils scripteurs) ainsi que les dimensions d'un programme d'enseignement de l'écriture manuelle. Les effets des programmes de remédiation ou d'enseignement intensif de l'écriture sont traités en dernière partie du chapitre 6. Cette thèse est composée d'une partie de recherche fondamentale et d'une partie de recherche appliquée. La recherche fondamentale, qui comprend deux étapes d'investigation (Etudes 1 et 2), a pour objectifs d'identifier les facteurs endogènes prédictifs d'une écriture manuelle non performante (dextérités digitale et manuelle, intégration visuomotrice ou visuoperception) et d'investiguer les relations entre la lecture, l'attention visuelle, la mémoire audtive et l'écriture manuelle. De plus, elle déterminera la prévalence du TAC parmi les enfants présentant une faible écriture manuelle. La recherche appliquée comporte deux expérimentations. La première expérience a pour but de mesurer les effets d'un programme d'enseignement de l'écriture introduit en fin de deuxième année primaire visant à permettre aux enfants les plus faibles dans le domaine de l'écriture d'améliorer leurs performances. La seconde expérience analyse les effets d'un programme d'enseignement intensif de l'écriture manuelle qui s'est déroulé au début de la première année de scolarité obligatoire. L'acquisition de l'écriture est complexe tant au niveau du contróle moteur que du codage phonème -graphème ou de l'attention. L'écriture manuelle, en tant que compétence de base dans le développement des acquisitions scolaires, demeure tout au long de la scolarité et de la vie professionnelle, une compétence incontournable malgré le développement des nouvelles technologies. Remplir un formulaire, prendre des notes dans une séance ou à un cours, signer des documents, consigner des notes dans des dossiers, utiliser des écrans tactiles constituent des activités nécessitant une écriture manuelle fonctionnelle.