CD8(+) T cells specific for tumor antigens can be rendered dysfunctional by the tumor microenvironment through upregulation of the inhibitory receptors BTLA and PD-1.

Cytotoxic T cells that are present in tumors and capable of recognizing tumor epitopes are nevertheless generally impotent in eliciting tumor rejection. Thus, identifying the immune escape mechanisms responsible for inducing tumor-specific CD8(+) T-cell dysfunction may reveal effective strategies for immune therapy. The inhibitory receptors PD-1 and Tim-3 are known to negatively regulate CD8(+) T-cell responses directed against the well-characterized tumor antigen NY-ESO-1. Here, we report that the upregulation of the inhibitory molecule BTLA also plays a critical role in restricting NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T-cell expansion and function in melanoma. BTLA-expressing PD-1(+)Tim-3(-) CD8(+) T cells represented the largest subset of NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T cells in patients with melanoma. These cells were partially dysfunctional, producing less IFN-γ than BTLA(-) T cells but more IFN-γ, TNF, and interleukin-2 than the highly dysfunctional subset expressing all three receptors. Expression of BTLA did not increase with higher T-cell dysfunction or upon cognate antigen stimulation, as it does with PD-1, suggesting that BTLA upregulation occurs independently of functional exhaustion driven by high antigen load. Added with PD-1 and Tim-3 blockades, BTLA blockade enhanced the expansion, proliferation, and cytokine production of NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T cells. Collectively, our findings indicate that targeting BTLA along with the PD-1 and Tim-3 pathways is critical to reverse an important mechanism of immune escape in patients with advanced melanoma.

Constitutive activity of receptors coupled to guanine nucleotide regulatory proteins.

Adrenoceptors are prototypic members of the superfamily of seven transmembrane domain, G protein-coupled receptors. Study of the properties of several mutationally activated adrenoceptors is deepening understanding of the normal functioning of this ubiquitous class of receptors. The new findings suggest an expansion of the classical ternary complex model of receptor action to include an explicit isomerization of the receptors from an inactive to an active state which couples to the G protein ('allosteric ternary complex model'). This isomerization involves conformational changes which may occur spontaneously, or be induced by agonists or appropriate mutations which abrogate the normal 'constraining' function of the receptor, allowing it to 'relax' into the active conformation. Robert Lefkowitz and colleagues discuss the physiological and pathophysiological implications of these new insights into regulation of receptor activity.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors: a nuclear receptor signaling pathway in lipid physiology.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are lipid-activated transcription factors that belong to the steroid/thyroid/retinoic acid receptor superfamily. All their characterized target genes encode proteins that participate in lipid homeostasis. The recent finding that antidiabetic thiazolidinediones and adipogenic prostanoids are ligands of one of the PPARs reveals a novel signaling pathway that directly links these compounds to processes involved in glucose homeostasis and lipid metabolism including adipocyte differentiation. A detailed understanding of this pathway could designate PPARs as targets for the development of novel efficient treatments for several metabolic disorders.

The early IL-4 response to Leishmania major and the resulting Th2 cell maturation steering progressive disease in BALB/c mice are subject to the control of regulatory CD4+CD25+ T cells.

Susceptibility and development of Th2 cells in BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania major result from early IL-4 production by Vbeta4Valpha8 CD4+ T cells in response to the Leishmania homolog of mammalian RACK1 Ag. A role for CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in the control of this early IL-4 production was investigated by depleting in vivo this regulatory T cell population. Depletion induced an increase in the early burst of IL-4 mRNA in the draining lymph nodes of BALB/c mice, and exacerbated the course of disease with higher levels of IL-4 mRNA and protein in their lymph nodes. We further showed that transfer of 10(7) BALB/c spleen cells that were depleted of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells rendered SCID mice susceptible to infection and allowed Th2 differentiation while SCID mice reconstituted with 10(7) control BALB/c spleen cells were resistant to infection with L. major and developed a Th1 response. Treatment with a mAb against IL-4 upon infection with L. major in SCID mice reconstituted with CD25-depleted spleen cells prevented the development of Th2 polarization and rendered them resistant to infection. These results demonstrate that CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells play a role in regulating the early IL-4 mRNA and the subsequent development of a Th2 response in this model of infection.

A dynamic model of keratinocyte stem cell renewal and differentiation: role of the p21WAF1/Cip1 and Notch1 signaling pathways.

We present here a dynamic model of functional equilibrium between keratinocyte stem cells, transit amplifying populations and cells that are reversibly versus irreversibly committed to differentiation. According to this model, the size of keratinocyte stem cell populations can be controlled at multiple levels, including relative late steps in the sequence of events leading to terminal differentiation and by the influences of a heterogeneous extra-cellular environment. We discuss how work in our laboratory, on the interconnection between the cyclin/CDK inhibitor p21WAF1/Cip1 and the Notch1 signaling pathways, provides strong support to this dynamic model of stem cell versus committed and/or differentiated keratinocyte populations.

Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) by their ligands and protein kinase A activators.

The nuclear peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) alpha, beta, and gamma activate the transcription of multiple genes involved in lipid metabolism. Several natural and synthetic ligands have been identified for each PPAR isotype but little is known about the phosphorylation state of these receptors. We show here that activators of protein kinase A (PKA) can enhance mouse PPAR activity in the absence and the presence of exogenous ligands in transient transfection experiments. Activation function 1 (AF-1) of PPARs was dispensable for transcriptional enhancement, whereas activation function 2 (AF-2) was required for this effect. We also show that several domains of PPAR can be phosphorylated by PKA in vitro. Moreover, gel retardation experiments suggest that PKA stabilizes binding of the liganded PPAR to DNA. PKA inhibitors decreased not only the kinase-dependent induction of PPARs but also their ligand-dependent induction, suggesting an interaction between both pathways that leads to maximal transcriptional induction by PPARs. Moreover, comparing PPAR alpha knockout (KO) with PPAR alpha WT mice, we show that the expression of the acyl CoA oxidase (ACO) gene can be regulated by PKA-activated PPAR alpha in liver. These data demonstrate that the PKA pathway is an important modulator of PPAR activity, and we propose a model associating this pathway in the control of fatty acid beta-oxidation under conditions of fasting, stress, and exercise.

Cutting edge: cell autonomous rather than environmental factors control bacterial superantigen-induced T cell anergy in vivo.

Anergic T cells display a marked decrease in their ability to produce IL-2 and to proliferate in the presence of an appropriate antigenic signal. Two nonmutually exclusive classes of models have been proposed to explain the persistence of T cell anergy in vivo. While some reports indicate that anergic T cells have intrinsic defects in signaling pathways or transcriptional activities, other studies suggest that anergy is maintained by environmental "suppressor" factors such as cytokines or Abs. To distinguish between these conflicting hypotheses, we employed the well-characterized bacterial superantigen model system to evaluate in vivo the ability of a trace population of adoptively transferred naive or anergized T cells to proliferate in a naive vs anergic environment upon subsequent challenge. Our data clearly demonstrate that bacterial superantigen-induced T cell anergy is cell autonomous and independent of environmental factors.

Clonal acquisition of the Ly49A NK cell receptor is dependent on the trans-acting factor TCF-1.

Families of clonally expressed major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-specific receptors provide specificity to and regulate the function of natural killer (NK) cells. One of these receptors, mouse Ly49A, is expressed by 20% of NK cells and inhibits the killing of H-2D(d) but not D(b)-expressing target cells. Here, we show that the trans-acting factor TCF-1 binds to two sites in the Ly49A promoter and regulates its activity. Moreover, we find that TCF-1 determines the size of the Ly49A NK cell subset in vivo in a dosage-dependent manner. We propose that clonal Ly49A acquisition during NK cell development is regulated by TCF-1.

The role of Notch receptors in T helper differentiation

After encountering antigens, naïve CD4+ Τ cells can differentiate into various effector Τ helper (Th) cell subsets, including CD4+ Thi, Th2, Thi7, regulatory Τ cells and the recently described follicular Τ helper cells (TFH cells). To date, most of the studies used either gain-of-function approaches that do not reflect the physiological Notch signaling intensity or loss-of-function models that block the entire Notch pathway. The contribution of single Notch receptors during Th differentiation occurring upon infection has not been investigated yet. In the present thesis, we wanted to assess the individual role of Notchi and Notch2 in Th differentiation, by using mice with Τ cell-specific deletion of Notchi, Notch2 or both (NiN2/iCD4Cre) in different models of infection/immunization.¦In the first part, we characterized the role of Notchi and Notch2 in Thi differentiation. We used experimental infection with the protozoan parasite Leishmania major, known to induce a protective Thi immune response in mice on the C57BL/6 background. Mice deficient for both Notchi and Notch2 developed unhealing lesions and were unable to control the parasite burden in their footpad. A profound defect in IFNy secretion by CD4+ Τ cells was shown to be responsible for the susceptibility of these mice. Although CD4+ Τ cells did not secrete IFNy following L. major infection, they exhibited higher IFNymRNA expression as well as higher frequency of CD4+IFNy+Τ cells in dLN. Altogether, these data indicate that Notch is dispensable for the differentiation of Thi cells expressing IFNy but controls, directly or not, the secretion of IFNy, allowing the development of a fully functional Thi immune response.¦In the second part of this thesis, we determined whether Notch is involved in differentiation of follicular Τ helper (TFH) cells. Using different models of immunization (NP-CGG, Schistosoma mansoni eggs) or infection (Leishmania mexicana), we showed that NiN2ACD4Cre mice were unable to generate TFH cells, displayed impaired germinal center (GC) formation as well as a profound defect in high affinity specific-antibodies secretion. We demonstrated an essential and previously unknown role of Notch in TFH cell development, the consequent GC formation and high affinity antibodies secretion, although the mechanisms by which Notch affects TFH development remain to be clearly demonstrated.¦-¦Lors d'une réponse immune, les lymphocytes Τ CD4+ se différencient en différentes sous- populations de lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires (T helper ou Th en anglais) incluant les populations de cellules Thi, Th2, Thn.7, Τ régulatrices ou Τ folliculaires. De nombreuses études ont montré un rôle de la voie de signalisation Notch dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires, bien que les résultats soient controversés. A ce jour, la majorité de ces études sont basées sur des modèles de gain de fonction qui ne reflètent pas le niveau physiologique du signal ou des modèles de perte de fonction pour lesquels toute la voie de signalisation est bloquée. De ce fait, nous avons voulu établir le rôle individuel de Notchi et Notch2 dans la réponse immune de type Thi et dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires folliculaires avec l'aide de souris déficientes pour Notchi, Notch2 ou les 2 (NiN2ACD4Cre) à la surface de leurs cellules T.¦Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous avons analysé le rôle de Notch dans la différentiation de type Thi suite à infection avec le parasite Leishmania major, connu pour induire une forte réponse Thi dans des souris de souche C57BL/6. Les souris déficientes pour Notchi et Notch2 développent une importante lésion et sont incapables de contrôler la prolifération du parasite au site d'infection. Le profond défaut de la sécrétion d'IFNy par les cellules Τ des ganglions drainants est probablement responsable de la susceptibilité de ces souris à L. major. Bien que les cellules Τ ne sécrètent pas d'IFNy, nous avons observé des niveaux plus importants d'expression au niveau de l'ARN messager, et une proportion plus élevée de cellules positives pour CD4 et IFNy. Ces résultats indiquent que Notch est nécessaire pour la sécrétion d'IFNy mais pas pour la différentiation de cellules compétentes pour l'IFNy.¦Dans un second temps, nous avons voulu déterminer si Notch est impliqué dans la différentiation des cellules Τ folliculaires. En utilisant divers modèles d'immunisation (avec NP-CGG ou des oeufs de Schistosoma mansoni) ou d'infection (avec L. mexicana), nous avons montré que les souris NlN2ACD4Cre sont incapables de générer des cellules Τ folliculaires. En conséquence, la formation des centres germinatifs et la sécrétion d'anticorps de haute affinité sont profondément affectés. Nous avons démontré dans cette seconde partie un rôle crucial et inconnu à ce jour de Notch dans la différentiation des cellules Τ et en conséquence dans la formation des centres germinatifs et la sécrétion des anticorps de haute affinité, bien que les mécanismes par lesquels Notch contrôle cette différentiation restent à identifier.¦-¦Lors d'une réponse immune, les lymphocytes Τ CD// se différencient en différentes sous- populations de lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires de types Thi, Th2, Thi7, régulatrices ou folliculaires, définies selon la sécrétion de cytokines spécifiques. Le rôle de ces sous-populations dans le contrôle de diverses infections ou leur association avec de nombreuses maladies rend la compréhension des mécanismes de différentiation de ces cellules particulièrement importante. De nombreux facteurs sont impliqués dans ce processus, tels que la présence de diverses cytokines dans l'environnement, la nature de l'antigène ou encore la force de la stimulation. Par ailleurs, de nombreuses études ont montré un rôle de la voie de signalisation Notch dans la différentiation des lymphocytes T, bien que les résultats soient controversés. Dans cette thèse, nous avons voulu évaluer le rôle individuel des récepteurs Notch dans la différentiation des cellules Τ auxiliaires de type Thi et folliculaires à l'aide de souris dont les récepteurs Notch sont spécifiquement absents à la surface des lymphocytes T.¦Dans la première partie, nous avons utilisé le modèle d'infection au parasite Leishmania major, connu pour induire une forte réponse protectrice de type Thi dans la majorité des souches de souris. Suite à l'infection, les souris déficientes pour les récepteurs Notch sont incapables de contrôler la prolifération du parasite et développent une importante lésion au site d'infection. Cette susceptibilité est due à l'incapacité des cellules Τ auxiliaires à sécréter une cytokine spécifique des cellules de type Thi et nécessaire à l'éradication du parasite, l'IFNy. Ces résultats indiquent que les récepteurs Notch sont indispensables au développement d'une réponse Thi fonctionnelle, permettant la guérison suite à l'infection avec L. major.¦Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous avons voulu déterminer si Notch est impliqué dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ folliculaires. Ces cellules ont la particularité d'aider les lymphocytes Β à former des centres germinatifs au sein desquels les lymphocytes Β prolifèrent et sécrètent des anticorps, un processus nécessaire à la protection contre les pathogènes. Actuellement, l'efficacité de la majorité des vaccins repose sur la sécrétion d'anticorps par les lymphocytes B, aidés par les cellules Τ folliculaires. En raison du rôle important de ces cellules dans l'éradication des pathogènes et lors d'un processus de vaccination, il est important de connaître les facteurs et les mécanismes permettant la différentiation de ces cellules. Dans cette étude, nous montrons que la formation des cellules Τ folliculaires dépend de la voie de signalisation Notch, impliquant un rôle essentiel de cette molécule dans l'induction de la sécrétion d'anticorps par les lymphocytes B.

CD28-negative cytolytic effector T cells frequently express NK receptors and are present at variable proportions in circulating lymphocytes from healthy donors and melanoma patients.

In humans, NK receptors are expressed by natural killer cells and some T cells, the latter of which are preferentially alphabetaTCR+ CD8+ cytolytic T lymphocytes (CTL). In this study we analyzed the expression of nine NK receptors (p58.1, p58.2, p70, p140, ILT2, NKRP1A, ZIN176, CD94 and CD94/NKG2A) in PBL from both healthy donors and melanoma patients. The percentages of NK receptor-positive T cells (NKT cells) varied strongly, and this variation was more important between individual patients than between individual healthy donors. In all the individuals, the NKT cells were preferentially CD28-, and a significant correlation was found between the percentage of CD28- T cells and the percentage of NK receptor+ T cells. Based on these data and the known activated phenotype of CD28- T cells, we propose that the CD28- CD8+ T cell pool represents or contains the currently active CTL population, and that the frequent expression of NK receptors reflects regulatory mechanisms modulating the extent of CTL effector function. Preliminary results indicate that some tumor antigen-specific T cells may indeed be CD28- and express NK receptors in vivo.

T cell receptor delta gene rearrangement and T early alpha (TEA) expression in immature alpha beta lineage thymocytes: implications for alpha beta/gamma delta lineage commitment.

Mature T cells comprise two mutually exclusive lineages expressing heterodimeric alpha beta or gamma delta antigen receptors. During development, beta, gamma, and delta genes rearrange before alpha, and mature gamma delta cells arise in the thymus prior to alpha beta cells. The mechanism underlying commitment of immature T cells to the alpha beta or gamma delta lineage is controversial. Since the delta locus is located within the alpha locus, rearrangement of alpha genes leads to deletion of delta. We have examined the rearrangement status of the delta locus immediately prior to alpha rearrangement. We find that many thymic precursors of alpha beta cells undergo VDJ delta rearrangements. Furthermore, the same cells frequently coexpress sterile T early alpha (TEA) transcripts originating 3' of C delta and 5' of the most upstream J alpha, thus implying that individual alpha beta lineage cells undergo sequential VDJ delta and VJ alpha rearrangements. Finally, VDJ delta rearrangements in immature alpha beta cells appear to be random, supporting models in which alpha beta lineage commitment is determined independently of the rearrangement status at the TCR delta locus.

Low TCR avidity and lack of tumor cell recognition in CD8(+) T cells primed with the CEA-analogue CAP1-6D peptide.

The use of "altered peptide ligands" (APL), epitopes designed for exerting increased immunogenicity as compared with native determinants, represents nowadays one of the most utilized strategies for overcoming immune tolerance to self-antigens and boosting anti-tumor T cell-mediated immune responses. However, the actual ability of APL-primed T cells to cross-recognize natural epitopes expressed by tumor cells remains a crucial concern. In the present study, we show that CAP1-6D, a superagonist analogue of a carcinoembriyonic antigen (CEA)-derived HLA-A*0201-restricted epitope widely used in clinical setting, reproducibly promotes the generation of low-affinity CD8(+) T cells lacking the ability to recognized CEA-expressing colorectal carcinoma (CRC) cells. Short-term T cell cultures, obtained by priming peripheral blood mononuclear cells from HLA-A*0201(+) healthy donors or CRC patients with CAP1-6D, were indeed found to heterogeneously cross-react with saturating concentrations of the native peptide CAP1, but to fail constantly lysing or recognizing through IFN- gamma release CEA(+)CRC cells. Characterization of anti-CAP1-6D T cell avidity, gained through peptide titration, CD8-dependency assay, and staining with mutated tetramers (D227K/T228A), revealed that anti-CAP1-6D T cells exerted a differential interaction with the two CEA epitopes, i.e., displaying high affinity/CD8-independency toward the APL and low affinity/CD8-dependency toward the native CAP1 peptide. Our data demonstrate that the efficient detection of self-antigen expressed by tumors could be a feature of high avidity CD8-independent T cells, and underline the need for extensive analysis of tumor cross-recognition prior to any clinical usage of APL as anti-cancer vaccines.

Cooperating pre-T-cell receptor and TCF-1-dependent signals ensure thymocyte survival.

Intrathymic T-cell maturation critically depends on the selective expansion of thymocytes expressing a functionally rearranged T-cell receptor (TCR) beta chain. In addition, TCR-independent signals also contribute to normal T-cell development. It is unclear whether and how signals from the 2 types of pathways are integrated. Here, we show that T-cell factor-1 (TCF-1), a nuclear effector of the canonical wingless/int (wnt)/catenin signaling pathway, ensures the survival of proliferating, pre-TCR(+) thymocytes. The survival of pre-TCR(+) thymocytes requires the presence of the N-terminal catenin-binding domain in TCF-1. This domain can bind the transcriptional coactivator beta-catenin and may also bind gamma-catenin (plakoglobin). However, in the absence of gamma-catenin, T-cell development is normal, supporting a role for beta-catenin. Signaling competent beta-catenin is present prior to and thus arises independently from pre-TCR signaling and does not substantially increase on pre-TCR signaling. In contrast, pre-TCR signaling significantly induces TCF-1 expression. This coincides with the activation of a wnt/catenin/TCF reporter transgene in vivo. Collectively, these data suggest that efficient TCF-dependent transcription requires that pre-TCR signaling induces TCF-1 expression, whereas wnt signals may provide the coactivator such as beta-catenin. The 2 pathways thus have to cooperate to ensure thymocyte survival at the pre-TCR stage.

Full activation of the T cell receptor requires both clustering and conformational changes at CD3.

T cell receptor (TCR-CD3) triggering involves both receptor clustering and conformational changes at the cytoplasmic tails of the CD3 subunits. The mechanism by which TCRalphabeta ligand binding confers conformational changes to CD3 is unknown. By using well-defined ligands, we showed that induction of the conformational change requires both multivalent engagement and the mobility restriction of the TCR-CD3 imposed by the plasma membrane. The conformational change is elicited by cooperative rearrangements of two TCR-CD3 complexes and does not require accompanying changes in the structure of the TCRalphabeta ectodomains. This conformational change at CD3 reverts upon ligand dissociation and is required for T cell activation. Thus, our permissive geometry model provides a molecular mechanism that rationalizes how the information of ligand binding to TCRalphabeta is transmitted to the CD3 subunits and to the intracellular signaling machinery.