Monitoring of innate and adaptive immune responses in the context of human immunotherapy

Summary1 SummaryCancer patients have a better clinical outcome when their tumours display marked infiltration by memory Τ cells. Moreover, the overrepresentation of Th1 gene signatures in primary tumours correlates with favourable prognosis. Thus, vaccination to induce Τ cells capable of infiltrating and eradicating the tumour seems a promising strategy for the treatment of cancer. Here, I monitored CD4 Τ cell responses in melanoma patients vaccinated with the long synthetic peptides Melan- A16-35(A27L) and NY-ESO-179.108. Most of the patients developed strong and diverse peptide antigen specific CD4 Τ cell responses. Analysis of the fine specificity of CD4 Τ cell antigen recognition led to the identification of two new epitopes. The peptide Melan-A16_35(A27L) was delivered by virus-like particles (VLPs) derived from bacteriophage Οβ, which themselves displayed strong immunogenicity. I show evidence for induction of Οβ- and Melan-A specific CD4 Τ cell responses that developed a Th1 functional profile after repeated vaccination cycles. They also specifically released the chemokines CCL-3 and CCL-4, which play important roles in attracting CD8 Τ cells to the APC surface for priming and formation of Τ cell memory. We further found induction of robust humoral IgG responses upon VLP vaccination, and the lgG1-lgG4 isotype composition depended on the adjuvant used. Since heavy chain class switching largely dépends on the presence of CD4 Τ cell help, this result suggests that the adjuvant can influence the differentiation of elicited CD4 Τ cells, thereby contributing to the quality and function of both Β cells and CD8 Τ cells. The nature of the inflammatory processes in the tumour microenvironment can modulate CD8 Τ cell function. A collaboration was established for the investigation regulation of inflammasome activation in human primary monocytes. We identified IL- 4 and TGF-β as strong inhibitors of IL-1 β secretion, Indicating some level of regulation from effector Th2 and Treg responses. We further found a potent inhibition of inflammasome activation by type I interferon, and demonstrated in vivo inhibition of IL-1 β responses in monocytes from active multiple sclerosis patients under IFN-β therapy. This finding further offers a possible explanation for its success, which mechanism of action is still largely unclear. Interestingly, type I interferon is also being used as adjuvant treatment for tumour free metastatic cutaneous melanoma patients. While its clinical benefit has remained controversial, recent data suggest that the subset of patients with ulcerated primary melanoma lesions can benefit from this therapy. Future investigations will shed light on the implication of the inflammasome in this context, and may offer new strategies for improved adjuvant treatments of melanoma.2 RésuméLes patients atteints de cancer ont une meilleure chance de survie si leurs tumeurs s'avèrent être largement infiltrées par des cellules Τ mémoires. De plus, la surreprésentation d'une signature génique Th1 est en corrélation avec un pronostic favorable. Ainsi, la vaccination visant à induire des cellules Τ capables d'infiltrer et de détruire la tumeur parait être une stratégie prometteuse pour le traitement du cancer. Dans ce travail, j'ai procédé au monitoring de la réponse des cellules Τ CD4 dans des patients atteints de mélanome vaccinés avec les longs peptides synthétiques Melan-A16_35(A27L) et NY-ESO-179_108. Ces peptides représentent des antigènes tumoraux reconnus par des lymphocytes T. La majorité des patients a développé une réponse forte et diversifiée des cellules Τ CD4 spécifiques contre les peptides. L'analyse de la spécificité fine de la reconnaissance antigénique des cellules Τ CD4 nous a conduits à l'identification de deux nouveaux épitopes. Le peptide Melan-Aie. 35(A27L) a été délivré par des particules de type viral (VLPs) dérivés de bactériophages Qβ, qui ont eux-mêmes démontré une forte immunogénicité. Mon travail montre les preuves d'une induction de réponses spécifiques des cellules Τ CD4 contre les Qβ et Melan-A développant un profil fonctionnel Th1 après plusieurs cycles de vaccination. Elles secrètent aussi spécifiquement les chimiokines CCL-3 et CCL-4, qui jouent un rôle important dans l'attraction des cellules Τ CD8 à la surface des cellules présentatrices d'antigènes et contribuent ainsi à induire et former la mémoire cellulaire Τ CD8. Nous avons également remarqué une induction de fortes réponses humorales IgG après vaccination avec les VLPs, et que la composition des isotypes lgG1-lgG4 dépendait de l'adjuvant utilisé. Etant donné qu'une commutation de classe de la chaîne lourde dépend largement ùie l'aide des cellules Τ CD4, ce résultat suggère que l'adjuvant puisse influencer la différeritiation de cellules Τ CD4 en différent types, contribuant ainsi à la qualité et à la fonction des cellules Β et des cellules Τ CD8.La nature des processus d'inflammation dans le microenvironnement tumoral peut moduler la fonction des cellules Τ CD8. Une collaboration a été établie pour investiguer la régulation de l'activation de l'inflammasome dans des monocytes primaires humains. Nous avons identifié l'IL-4 et le TGF-β comme étant de puissants inhibiteurs de la sécrétion de IL-Ιβ, indiquant une certaine régulation de la réponse inflammatoire induite par les cellules Th2 et Τ régulatrices. Nous avons également trouvé une forte inhibition de l'activation de l'inflammasome par l'interféron type I, et nous avons démontré une inhibition in vivo de la réponse IL-1 β dans des monocytes de patients atteints d'une sclérose en plaque active sous traitement IFN-β. Ce résultat nous offre une possible explication du succès de cette thérapie, dont le mécanisme reste à ce jour encore largement obscur. Il est intéressant de noter que l'interféron de type I est également utilisé pour le traitement de patients atteints de mélanome cutané métastasique sans tumeurs. Bien que le bénéfice clinique de ce traitement reste controversé, des études récentes montrent qu'une partie des patients atteints de mélanome primaire ulcéré peut tirer bénéfice de cette thérapie. De futures investigations pourront mieux nous renseigner sur l'implication de l'inflammasome dans ce contexte et offrir de nouvelles stratégies pour améliorer les traitements adjuvants du mélanome.

Clinical and radiographic findings in two brothers affected with a novel mutation in matrix metalloproteinase 2 gene.

The two well-described osteolysis syndromes associated with matrix metalloproteinase-2 deficiency and mutations in the metalloproteinase-2 gene are Torg-Winchester syndrome and nodulosis-arthropathy-osteolysis variant. They are characterized by carpal-tarsal destruction, subcutaneous nodules, and generalized osteoporosis and show autosomal recessive inheritance. Herein, we report two siblings affected with a novel mutation in matrix metalloproteinase 2 gene and discuss their clinical and radiographic findings.

A NOVEL MUTATION IN BCS1L IN A PATIENT WITH AN ISOLATED MITOCHONDRIAL COMPLEX III DEFICIENCY

Background: Isolated complex III deficiencies are caused by mutations in the mitochondrial CytB gene, in the BCS1L gene coding for a CIII assembly factor and in the UQCRQ gene that codes for the ubiquinone binding protein of complex III. Objective: Description of clinical features, mitochondrial function and molecular genetic analysis in a patient with an isolated complex III deficiency. Patient: A 17 year old boy, born to consanguineous parents who presented with hypoglycemia, glycosuria, deafness, growth retardation, Fanconi Syndrome and severe lactic acidosis in the neonatal period. Methods: Activities and assembly of OXPHOS complexes were investigated spectrophotometrically and by BN-PAGE. mt-DNAwas screened for deletions. Cytochrome b (CytB) and the BCS1L gene were sequenced. Results: Isolated complex III deficiency was detected in the patient's skeletal muscle. Using BN-PAGE blotting a complex III of lower molecular weight was detected. Staining the 2D reveals a missing subunit. No mutation was detected in the mitochondrial CytB gene. Sequence analysis of BCS1L revealed a novel homozygous point mutation p.M48V. Conclusion: The patients decreased complex III activity is most likely caused by incomplete assembly of complex III due to the homozygous p. M48V mutation in the BCS1L gene.

Prenatal diagnosis of dysmorphic syndromes by routine fetal ultrasound examination across Europe.

OBJECTIVES: Ultrasound scan in the mid-trimester of pregnancy is now a routine part of prenatal care in most European countries. The objective of this study was to evaluate the prenatal diagnosis of dysmorphic syndromes by fetal ultrasound examination. METHODS: Data from 20 registries of congenital malformations in 12 European countries were included in the study. RESULTS: There were 2454 cases with congenital heart diseases, 479 of which were recognized syndromes, including 375 chromosomal anomalies and 104 syndromes without chromosomal anomalies. Fifty-one of the 104 were detected prenatally (49.0%). One hundred and ninety-two of 1130 cases with renal anomalies were recognized syndromes, including 128 chromosomal anomalies and 64 syndromes without chromosomal anomalies; 162 of them (84.4%) were diagnosed prenatally, including 109 chromosomal anomalies and 53 non-chromosomal syndromes. Fifty-four of the 250 cases with limb defects were recognized syndromes, including 16 chromosomal syndromes and 38 syndromes without chromosomal anomalies; 21 of these 54 syndromes were diagnosed prenatally (38.9%), including 9 chromosomal syndromes. There were 243 cases of abdominal wall defects including 57 recognizable syndromes, 48 with omphalocele and 9 with gastroschisis; 48 were diagnosed prenatally (84.2%). Twenty-six of the 187 cases with diaphragmatic hernia had recognized syndromes, including 20 chromosomal aberrations and 6 syndromes without chromosomal anomalies. Twenty-two of them (84.6%) were detected prenatally. Sixty-four of 349 cases with intestinal anomalies were recognized syndromes; 24 were diagnosed prenatally (37.5%). There were 553 cases of cleft lip and palate (CL(P)) and 198 of cleft palate (CP) including 74 chromosomal anomalies and 73 recognized non-chromosomal syndromes. Prenatal diagnosis was made in 51 cases of CL(P) (53.7%) and 7 of CP (13.7%). Twenty-two of 188 anencephalic cases were syndromic and all were diagnosed prenatally. Of 290 cases with spina bifida, 18 were recognized syndromes, and of them 17 were diagnosed prenatally. All 11 syndromic encephaloceles were diagnosed prenatally. CONCLUSIONS: Around 50% of the recognized syndromes which are associated with major congenital anomalies (cardiac, renal, intestinal, limb defects, abdominal wall defects and oral clefts) can be detected prenatally by the anomaly scan. However the detection rate varies with the type of syndrome and with the different countries' policies of prenatal screening.

Protective and Aggravating Effects of Nlrp3 Inflammasome Activation in IBD Models: Influence of Genetic and Environmental Factors.

Background: Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation due to dysregulation of the mucosal immune system. The cytokines IL-1β and IL-18 appear early in intestinal inflammation and their pro-forms are processed via the caspase-1-activating multiprotein complex, the Nlrp3 inflammasome. Previously, we reported that the uptake of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) by macrophages activates the Nlrp3 inflammasome and that Nlrp3(-/-) mice are protected in the acute DSS colitis model. Of note, other groups have reported opposing effects in regards to DSS susceptibility in Nlrp3(-/-) mice. Recently, mice lacking inflammasomes were found to develop a distinct intestinal microflora. Methods: To reconcile the contradicting observations, we investigated the role of Nlrp3 deficiency in two different IBD models: acute DSS colitis and TNBS (2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid)-induced colitis. In addition, we investigated the impact of the intestinal flora on disease severity by performing cohousing experiments of wild-type and Nlrp3(-/-) mice, as well as by antibiotic treatment. Results: Nlrp3(-/-) mice treated with either DSS or TNBS exhibited attenuated colitis and lower mortality. This protective effect correlated with an increased frequency of CD103+ lamina propria dendritic cells expressing a tolerogenic phenotype in Nlrp3(-/-) mice in steady state conditions. Interestingly, after cohousing, Nlrp3(-/-) mice were as susceptible as wild-type mice, indicating that transmission of endogenous bacterial flora between the two mouse strains might increase susceptibility of Nlrp3(-/-) mice towards DSS-induced colitis. Accordingly, treatment with antibiotics almost completely prevented colitis in the DSS model. Conclusions: The composition of the intestinal microflora significantly influences disease severity in IBD models comparing wild-type and Nlrp3(-/-) mice. This observation may - at least in part - explain contradictory results concerning the role of the inflammasome in different labs. Further studies are required to define the role of the Nlrp3 inflammasome in noninflamed mucosa under steady state conditions and in IBD.

Beta-catenin is dispensable for hematopoiesis and lymphopoiesis.

Beta-catenin-mediated Wnt signaling has been suggested to be critically involved in hematopoietic stem cell maintenance and development of T and B cells in the immune system. Unexpectedly, here we report that inducible Cre-loxP-mediated inactivation of the beta-catenin gene in bone marrow progenitors does not impair their ability to self-renew and reconstitute all hematopoietic lineages (myeloid, erythroid, and lymphoid), even in competitive mixed chimeras. In addition, both thymocyte survival and antigen-induced proliferation of peripheral T cells is beta-catenin independent. In contrast to earlier reports, these data exclude an essential role for beta-catenin during hematopoiesis and lymphopoiesis.

Humoral and cellular immune responses against Type I cysteine proteinase of Leishmania infantum are higher in asymptomatic than symptomatic dogs selected from a naturally infected population.

Canids are natural reservoirs of Leishmania infantum and have been promoted as experimental hosts to decipher the pathogenesis of human visceral leishmaniasis (VL). In this study, the presence of IgG antibodies as well as the presence of mononuclear leukocytes reactive to different cysteine proteinases (CPs) were examined in 13 L. infantum-infected dogs (six with symptoms, seven asymptomatic). Cysteine proteinases which belong to papain-like enzymes known as clan CA are the most studied CPs of parasite protozoa. These molecules are expressed by the intracellular stages of the parasite and could be immunogenic. We studied Type II CP (CPA) and Type I CP (CPB) with its long C-terminal extension (CTE) which could be highly immunogenic. We showed that the level of antibodies reactive to rCPA is low in both symptomatic and asymptomatic dogs. In contrast, when CPB and CTE were used as antigens, the level of total IgG (with IgG2 superior to IgG1) reached higher values in asymptomatic dogs than in dogs with VL. While the peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) reactivity was significant when cultured in the presence of freezed/thawed (F/T) lysate, it remained low in presence of CP although always higher for PBMC recovered from asymptomatic dogs. We showed the importance of CPB and CTE in particular as a target of immune response and their potential use for serodiagnosis in asymptomatic dogs.

Antigen-secretory IgA immune complexes are retro-transported into mouse Peyer's patches: immunotargeting to dendritic cells

RÉSUMÉ Les plaques de Peyer (PP) représentent le site d'entrée majeur des pathogènes au niveau des muqueuses intestinales. Après avoir traversé la cellule M, l'antigène est pris en charge par les cellules dendritiques (DC) de la région sub-épithéliale du dôme des PP. Ces dernières activent une réponse immunitaire qui conduit à la production de l'IgA de sécrétion (SIgA), l'anticorps majeur au niveau muqueux. Des études précédentes dans notre laboratoire ont démontré qu'après administration de SIgA dans des anses intestinales de souris, les SIgA se lient spécifiquement aux cellules M, entrent dans les PP, et sont éventuellement internalisées par les DC. Le but de ce travail est de comprendre la relevance biologique de l'entrée des SIgA dans les PP et leur relevance physiologique dans l'homéostasie mucosale. Dans un premier temps, nous avons montré en utilisant une méthode de purification optimisée basée sur une isolation magnétique, que, en plus des DC myéloïdes (CD11c+/CD11b+) et des DC lymphoïdes (CD11c+/CD8+), les PP de souris contiennent un nouveau sous-type de DC exprimant les marqueurs CD11c et CD19. L'utilisation de la microscopie confocale nous a permis de démontrer que les DC myéloïdes internalisent des SIgA, contrairement aux DC lymphoïdes qui n'interagissent pas avec les SIgA, alors que le nouveau sous-type de DC exprimant CD19 lie les SIgA. En plus, nous avons démontré qu'aucune des DC de rate, de ganglion bronchique ou de ganglion inguinal interagit avec les SIgA. Dans le but d'explorer si les SIgA peuvent délivrer des antigènes aux DC des PP in vivo, nous avons administré des complexes immunitaires formés de Shigella flexneri complexées à des SIgA, dans des anses intestinales de souris. Nous avons observé une entrée dans les PP, suivie d'une migration vers les ganglions mésentériques drainants, contrairement aux Shigella flexneri seules, qui n'infectent pas la souris par la voie intestinale. Shigella flexneri délivrée par SIgA n'induit pas de destruction tissulaire au niveau de l'intestin. En plus de l'exclusion immunitaire, ces résultats suggèrent un nouveau rôle des SIgA, qui consiste à transporter des antigènes à l'intérieur des PP dans un contexte non-inflammatoire. RÉSUMÉ DESTINÉ À UN LARGE PUBLIC L'intestin a pour rôle principal d'absorber les nutriments digérés tout au long du tube digestif, et de les faire passer dans le compartiment intérieur sanguin. Du fait de son exposition chronique avec un monde extérieur constitué d'aliments et de bactéries, l'intestin est un endroit susceptible aux infections et a donc besoin d'empêcher l'entrée de microbes. Pour cela, l'intestin est tapissé de "casernes" appelées les plaques de Peyer, qui appartiennent à un système de défense appelé système immunitaire muqueux. Les plaques de Peyer sont composées de différents types de cellules, ayant pour rôle de contrôler l'entrée de microbes et de développer une réaction immunitaire lors d'infection. Cette réaction immunitaire contre les microbes (antigènes) débute par la prise en charge de l'antigène par des sentinelles, les cellules dendritiques. L'antigène est préparé de façon à être reconnu par d'autres cellules appelées lymphocytes T capables d'activer d'autres cellules, les lymphocytes B. La réaction immunitaire résulte dans la production par les lymphocytes B d'un anticorps spécifique appelé IgA de sécrétion (SIgA) au niveau de la lumière intestinale. De manière classique, le rôle de SIgA au niveau de la lumière intestinale consiste à enrober les microbes et donc exclure leur entrée dans le compartiment intérieur. Dans ce travail, nous avons découvert une nouvelle fonction des SIgA qui consiste à introduire des antigènes dans les plaques de Peyer, et de les diriger vers les cellules dendritiques. Sachant que les SIgA sont des anticorps qui ne déclenchent pas de réactions de défense violentes dites inflammatoires, l'entrée des antigènes via SIgA serait en faveur d'une défense intestinale maîtrisée sans qu'il y ait d'inflammation délétère. Ces résultats nous laissent supposer que l'entrée d'antigènes via SIgA pourrait conduire le système immunitaire muqueux à reconnaître ces antigènes de manière appropriée. Ce mécanisme pourrait expliquer les désordres immunitaires de types allergiques et maladies auto-immunitaires que l'on rencontre chez certaines personnes déficientes en IgA, chez qui cette lecture d'antigènes de manière correcte serait inadéquate. ABSTRACT Peyer's patches (PP) represent the primary site for uptake and presentation of ingested antigens in the intestine. Antigens are sampled by M cells, which pass them to underlying antigen-presenting cells including dendritic cells (DC). This leads to the induction of mucosal T cell response that is important for the production of secretory IgA (SIgA), the chief antibody at mucosal surfaces. Previous studies in the laboratory have shown that exogenous SIgA administrated into mouse intestinal loop binds specifically to M cells, enter into PP, and is eventually internalized by DC. The aim of this work is to understand the biological significance of the SIgA uptake by PP DC and its physiological relevance for mucosal homeostasis. As a first step, we have shown by using an optimized MACS method that, in addition to the CD11c+/CD11b+ (myeloid DC) and CD11c+/CD8+ (lymphoid DC) subtypes, mouse PP contain a novel DC subtype exhibiting both CD11c and CD19 markers. By using a combination of MACS isolation and confocal microscopy, we have demonstrated that in contrast to the lymphoid DC which do not interact with SIgA, the myeloid DC internalize SIgA, while the CD19+ subtype binds SIgA on its surface. Neither spleen DC, nor bronchial-lymph node DC, nor inguinal lymph node DC exhibit such a binding specificity. To test whether SIgA could deliver antigens to PP DC in vivo, we administered SIgA-Shigella flexneri immune complexes into mouse intestinal loop containing a PP. We found that (i) SIgA-Shigella flexneri immune complexes enter the PP and are internalized by sub-epithelial dome PP DC, in contrast to Shigella flexneri alone that does not penetrate the intestinal epithelia in mice, (ii) immune complexes migrate to the draining mesenteric lymph node, (iii) Shigella flexneri carried via SIgA do not induce intestinal tissue destruction. Our results suggest that in addition to immune exclusion, SIgA transports antigens back to the PP under non-inflammatory conditions.

Effect of oxidized cholesterol on age-associated changes to immune parameters in spleen lymphocytes and peritoneal exudate cells derived from rats

The effects of oxidized cholesterol on immune parameters were examined by using spleen lymphocytes and peritoneal exudate cells (PEC) derived from 5-week- (Young) and 9-month-old (Adult) rats. The immunoglobulin (Ig) G and IgM production was inhibited by oxidized cholesterol in the rats of both ages when lymphocytes were exposed to 30 micrograms/ml of oxidized cholesterol for 24 hr. The intracellular IgA level was also lowered by 30 micrograms/ml of oxidized cholesterol, irrespective of age. In contrast, IgE production was significantly increased by the addition of 30 micrograms/ml of oxidized cholesterol in only young lymphocytes. Moreover, oxidized cholesterol enhanced the intracellular histamine accumulation in only adult PEC, although the total histamine level produced by PEC was similar in the rats of both ages. These results thus suggest the possibility that oxidized cholesterol can have different effects on the age-related modulation of immune functions such as Igs production and histamine release.

Identification of Leishmania major cysteine proteinases as targets of the immune response in humans.

In this study, we report the identification of two parasite polypeptides recognized by human sera of patients infected with Leishmania major. Isolation and sequencing of the two genes encoding these polypeptides revealed that one of the genes is similar to the L. major cathepsin L-like gene family CPB, whereas the other gene codes for the L. major homologue of the cysteine proteinase a (CPA) of L. mexicana. By restriction enzyme digestion of genomic DNA, we show that the CPB gene is present in multiple copies in contrast to the cysteine proteinase CPA gene which could be unique. Specific antibodies directed against the mature regions of both types expressed in Escherichia coli were used to analyze the expression of these polypeptides in different stages of the parasite's life cycle. Polypeptides of 27 and 40 kDa in size, corresponding to CPA and CPB respectively, were detected at higher level in amastigotes than in stationary phase promastigotes. Purified recombinant CPs were also used to examine the presence of specific antibodies in sera from either recovered or active cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis patients. Unlike sera from healthy uninfected controls, all the sera reacted with recombinant CPA and CPB. This finding indicates that individuals having recovered from cutaneous leishmaniasis or with clinically apparent disease have humoral responses to cysteine proteinases demonstrating the importance of these proteinases as targets of the immune response and also their potential use for serodiagnosis.

Induction of innate immune responses through Nalp3 inflammasome sensing of asbestos and silica

The inhalation of airborne pollutants such as asbestos or silica is linked to inflammation of the lung, fibrosis and lung cancer. How the presence of pathogenic dust is recognised, and how chronic inflammatory diseases are triggered are poorly understood. We will se show that asbestos and silica are sensed by the Nalp3 inflammasome, whose subsequent activation leads to IL-1b secretion. Inflammasome activation is triggered by reactive oxygen species, which are generated by a NADPH oxidase upon particle phagocytosis. In a model of asbestos inhalation, Nalp3_/_ mice showed diminished recruitment of inflammatory cells to the lungs, paralleled by lower cytokine production. Our findings implicate the Nalp3 inflammasome in particulate matter-related pulmonary diseases and support its role as a major proinflammatory ''danger" receptor.

Repercussion of a deficiency in mitochondrial ß-oxidation on the carbon flux of short-chain fatty acids to the peroxisomal ß-oxidation cycle in Aspergillus nidulans.

The fungus Aspergillus nidulans contains both a mitochondrial and peroxisomal ß-oxidation pathway. This work was aimed at studying the influence of mutations in the foxA gene, encoding a peroxisomal multifunctional protein, or in the scdA/echA genes, encoding a mitochondrial short-chain dehydrogenase and an enoyl-CoA hydratase, respectively, on the carbon flux to the peroxisomal ß-oxidation pathway. A. nidulans transformed with a peroxisomal polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) synthase produced PHA from the polymerization of 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA intermediates derived from the peroxisomal ß-oxidation of external fatty acids. PHA produced from erucic acid or heptadecanoic acid contained a broad spectrum of monomers, ranging from 5 to 14 carbons, revealing that the peroxisomal ß-oxidation cycle can handle both long and short-chain intermediates. While the ∆foxA mutant grown on erucic acid or oleic acid synthesized 10-fold less PHA compared to wild type, the same mutant grown on octanoic acid or heptanoic acid produced 3- to 6-fold more PHA. Thus, while FoxA has an important contribution to the degradation of long-chain fatty acids, the flux of short-chain fatty acids to peroxisomal ß-oxidation is actually enhanced in its absence. While no change in PHA was observed in the ∆scdA∆echA mutant grown on erucic acid or oleic acid compared to wild type, there was a 2- to 4-fold increased synthesis of PHA in ∆scdA∆echA cells grown in octanoic acid or heptanoic acid. These results reveal that a compensatory mechanism exists in A. nidulans that increases the flux of short-chain fatty acids towards the peroxisomal ß-oxidation cycle when the mitochondrial ß-oxidation pathway is defective.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells sense skin injury and promote wound healing through type I interferons.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are specialized type I interferon (IFN-α/β)-producing cells that express intracellular toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 and TLR9 and recognize viral nucleic acids in the context of infections. We show that pDCs also have the ability to sense host-derived nucleic acids released in common skin wounds. pDCs were found to rapidly infiltrate both murine and human skin wounds and to transiently produce type I IFNs via TLR7- and TLR9-dependent recognition of nucleic acids. This process was critical for the induction of early inflammatory responses and reepithelization of injured skin. Cathelicidin peptides, which facilitate immune recognition of released nucleic acids by promoting their access to intracellular TLR compartments, were rapidly induced in skin wounds and were sufficient but not necessary to stimulate pDC activation and type I IFN production. These data uncover a new role of pDCs in sensing tissue damage and promoting wound repair at skin surfaces.