Reconciling global mammal prioritization schemes into a strategy.

The huge conservation interest that mammals attract and the large datasets that have been collected on them have propelled a diversity of global mammal prioritization schemes, but no comprehensive global mammal conservation strategy. We highlight some of the potential discrepancies between the schemes presented in this theme issue, including: conservation of species or areas, reactive and proactive conservation approaches, conservation knowledge and action, levels of aggregation of indicators of trend and scale issues. We propose that recently collected global mammal data and many of the mammal prioritization schemes now available could be incorporated into a comprehensive global strategy for the conservation of mammals. The task of developing such a strategy should be coordinated by a super-partes, authoritative institution (e.g. the International Union for Conservation of Nature, IUCN). The strategy would facilitate funding agencies, conservation organizations and national institutions to rapidly identify a number of short-term and long-term global conservation priorities, and act complementarily to achieve them.

Clusterin in neurological disorders: molecular perspectives and clinical relevance.

Firstly discovered in rete testis fluid, clusterin is a glycoprotein present in most of the other biological fluids. Several isoforms of clusterin are encoded from a single gene located on chromosome 8 in human species. Among the different isoforms, the secreted form of clusterin is expressed by a variety of tissues, including the nervous system under normal conditions. This form is presumed to play an anti-apoptotic role and seems to be a major determinant in cell survival and neuroplasticity after stroke. In animal models of this pathology, both neuronal and astroglial subpopulations express high levels of clusterin early after the ischemic damage. Recent lines of evidence point also to its possible involvement in neurodegenerative disorders. It is thought that in Alzheimer's disease the association between amyloidogenic peptides and clusterin contributes to limit Aβ species misfolding and facilitates their clearance from the extracellular space. Thus, intercellular and intracellular factors that modulate local clusterin expression in the nervous system may represent potent targets for neurodegenerative disease therapies. In this review we provide a critical overview of the most recent data on the involvement of clusterin in neurodegenerative diseases with special reference to their putative clinical relevance.

Thyroid cancer mortality and incidence: a global overview.

In most areas of the world, thyroid cancer incidence has been appreciably increasing over the last few decades, whereas mortality has steadily declined. We updated global trends in thyroid cancer mortality and incidence using official mortality data from the World Health Organization (1970-2012) and incidence data from the Cancer Incidence in Five Continents (1960-2007). Male mortality declined in all the major countries considered, with annual percent changes around -2/-3% over the last decades. Only in the United States mortality declined up to the mid 1980s and increased thereafter. Similarly, in women mortality declined in most countries considered, with APCs around -2/-5% over the last decades, with the exception of the UK, the United States and Australia, where mortality has been declining up to the late 1980s/late 1990s to level off (or increase) thereafter. In 2008-2012, most countries had mortality rates (age-standardized, world population) between 0.20 and 0.40/100,000 men and 0.20 and 0.60/100,000 women, the highest rates being in Latvia, Hungary, the Republic of Moldova and Israel (over 0.40/100,000) for men and in Ecuador, Colombia and Israel (over 0.60/100,000) for women. In most countries, a steady increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer (mainly papillary carcinomas) was observed in both sexes. The declines in thyroid cancer mortality reflect both variations in risk factor exposure and changes in the diagnosis and treatment of the disease, while the increases in the incidence are likely due to the increase in the detection of this neoplasm over the last few decades.

Source inference of exogenous gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) administered to humans by means of carbon isotopic ratio analysis: novel perspectives regarding forensic investigation and intelligence issues.

γ-Hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is an endogenous short-chain fatty acid popular as a recreational drug due to sedative and euphoric effects, but also often implicated in drug-facilitated sexual assaults owing to disinhibition and amnesic properties. Whilst discrimination between endogenous and exogenous GHB as required in intoxication cases may be achieved by the determination of the carbon isotope content, such information has not yet been exploited to answer source inference questions of forensic investigation and intelligence interests. However, potential isotopic fractionation effects occurring through the whole metabolism of GHB may be a major concern in this regard. Thus, urine specimens from six healthy male volunteers who ingested prescription GHB sodium salt, marketed as Xyrem(®), were analysed by means of gas chromatography/combustion/isotope ratio mass spectrometry to assess this particular topic. A very narrow range of δ(13)C values, spreading from -24.810/00 to -25.060/00, was observed, whilst mean δ(13)C value of Xyrem(®) corresponded to -24.990/00. Since urine samples and prescription drug could not be distinguished by means of statistical analysis, carbon isotopic effects and subsequent influence on δ(13)C values through GHB metabolism as a whole could be ruled out. Thus, a link between GHB as a raw matrix and found in a biological fluid may be established, bringing relevant information regarding source inference evaluation. Therefore, this study supports a diversified scope of exploitation for stable isotopes characterized in biological matrices from investigations on intoxication cases to drug intelligence programmes.

Differential effects of glutamate transporter inhibitors on the global electrophysiological response of astrocytes to neuronal stimulation

Astrocytes are responsible for regulating extracellular levels of glutamate and potassium during neuronal activity. Glutamate clearance is handled by glutamate transporter subtypes glutamate transporter 1 and glutamate-aspartate transporter in astrocytes. DL-threo-beta-benzyloxyaspartate (TBOA) and dihydrokainate (DHK) are extensively used as inhibitors of glial glutamate transport activity. Using whole-cell recordings, we characterized the effects of both transporter inhibitors on afferent-evoked astrocyte currents in acute cortical slices of 3-week-old rats. When neuronal afferents were stimulated, passive astrocytes responded by a rapid inward current followed by a persistent tail current. The first current corresponded to a glutamate transporter current. This current was inhibited by both inhibitors and by tetrodotoxin. The tail current is an inward potassium current as it was blocked by barium. Besides inhibiting transporter currents, TBOA strongly enhanced the tail current. This effect was barium-sensitive and might be due to a rise in extracellular potassium level and increased glial potassium uptake. Unlike TBOA, DHK did not enhance the tail current but rather inhibited it. This result suggests that, in addition to inhibiting glutamate transport, DHK prevents astrocyte potassium uptake, possibly by blockade of inward-rectifier channels. This study revealed that, in brain slices, glutamate transporter inhibitors exert complex effects that cannot be attributed solely to glutamate transport inhibition.

Assessment of speed of human locomotion using a differential satellite global positioning system.

PURPOSE: The objective was to explore whether a satellite-based navigation system, global positioning system used in differential mode (DGPS), could accurately assess the speed of running in humans. METHODS: A subject was equipped with a portable GPS receptor coupled to a receiver for differential corrections, while running outdoors on a straight asphalt road at 27 different speeds. Actual speed (reference method) was assessed by chronometry. RESULTS: The accuracy of speed prediction had a standard deviation (SD) of 0.08 km x h(-1) for walking, 0.11 km x h(-1) for running, yielding a coefficient of variation (SD/mean) of 1.38% and 0.82%, respectively. There was a highly significant linear relationship between actual and DGPS speed assessment (r2 = 0.999) with little bias in the prediction equation, because the slope of the regression line was close to unity (0.997). CONCLUSION: the DGPS technique appears to be a valid and inconspicuous tool for "on line" monitoring of the speed of displacement of individuals located on any field on earth, for prolonged periods of time and unlimited distance, but only in specific environmental conditions ("open sky"). Furthermore, the accuracy of speed assessment using the differential GPS mode was improved by a factor of 10 as compared to non-differential GPS.

Early attentional processes distinguish selective from global motor inhibitory control : An electrical neuroimaging study

The rapid stopping of specific parts of movements is frequently required in daily life. Yet, whether selective inhibitory control of movements is mediated by a specific neural pathway or by the combination between a global stopping of all ongoing motor activity followed by the re-initiation of task-relevant movements remains unclear. To address this question, we applied time-wise statistical analyses of the topography, global field power and electrical sources of the event-related potentials to the global vs selective inhibition stimuli presented during a Go/NoGo task. Participants (n = 18) had to respond as fast as possible with their two hands to Go stimuli and to withhold the response from the two hands (global inhibition condition, GNG) or from only one hand (selective inhibition condition, SNG) when specific NoGo stimuli were presented. Behaviorally, we replicated previous evidence for slower response times in the SNG than in the Go condition. Electrophysiologically, there were two distinct phases of event-related potentials modulations between the GNG and the SNG conditions. At 110âeuro"150 ms post-stimulus onset, there was a difference in the strength of the electric field without concomitant topographic modulation, indicating the differential engagement of statistically indistinguishable configurations of neural generators for selective and global inhibitory control. At 150âeuro"200 ms, there was topographic modulation, indicating the engagement of distinct brain networks. Source estimations localized these effects within bilateral temporo-parieto-occipital and within parieto-central networks, respectively. Our results suggest that while both types of motor inhibitory control depend on global stopping mechanisms, selective and global inhibition still differ quantitatively at early attention-related processing phases.

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI): state of the art techniques and future perspectives.

Transcatheter aortic valve therapies are the newest established techniques for the treatment of high risk patients affected by severe symptomatic aortic valve stenosis. The transapical approach requires a left anterolateral mini-thoracotomy, whereas the transfemoral method requires an adequate peripheral vascular access and can be performed fully percutaneously. Alternatively, the trans-subclavian access has been recently proposed as a third promising approach. Depending on the technique, the fine stent-valve positioning can be performed with or without contrast injections. The transapical echo-guided stent-valve implantation without angiography (the Lausanne technique) relies entirely on transoesophageal echocardiogramme imaging for the fine stent-valve positioning and it has been proved that this technique prevents the onset of postoperative contrast-related acute kidney failure. Recent published reports have shown good hospital outcomes and short-term results after transcatheter aortic valve implantation, but there are no proven advantages in using the transfemoral or the transapical technique. In particular, the transapical series have a higher mean logistic Euroscore of 27-35%, a procedural success rate above 95% and a mean 30-day mortality between 7.5 and 17.5%, whereas the transfemoral results show a lower logistic Euroscore of 23-25.5%, a procedural success rate above 90% and a 30-day mortality of 7-10.8%. Nevertheless, further clinical trials and long-term results are mandatory to confirm this positive trend. Future perspectives in transcatheter aortic valve therapies would be the development of intravascular devices for the ablation of the diseased valve leaflets and the launch of new stent-valves with improved haemodynamic, different sizes and smaller delivery systems.