Subversion of host immune responses by viral superantigens.

Recent experiments with mouse mammary tumor virus indicate that expression of a virally encoded superantigen by B cells and its subsequent recognition by T cells are essential steps for amplification of infection and virus transmission. Preliminary results suggest that superantigens may also be expressed during retroviral infection in humans.

Regulation of PIDD auto-proteolysis and activity by the molecular chaperone Hsp90.

In response to DNA damage, p53-induced protein with a death domain (PIDD) forms a complex called the PIDDosome, which either consists of PIDD, RIP-associated protein with a death domain and caspase-2, forming a platform for the activation of caspase-2, or contains PIDD, RIP1 and NEMO, important for NF-κB activation. PIDDosome activation is dependent on auto-processing of PIDD at two different sites, generating the fragments PIDD-C and PIDD-CC. Despite constitutive cleavage, endogenous PIDD remains inactive. In this study, we screened for novel PIDD regulators and identified heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) as a major effector in both PIDD protein maturation and activation. Hsp90, together with p23, binds PIDD and inhibition of Hsp90 activity with geldanamycin efficiently disrupts this association and impairs PIDD auto-processing. Consequently, both PIDD-mediated NF-κB and caspase-2 activation are abrogated. Interestingly, PIDDosome formation itself is associated with Hsp90 release. Characterisation of cytoplasmic and nuclear pools of PIDD showed that active PIDD accumulates in the nucleus and that only cytoplasmic PIDD is bound to Hsp90. Finally, heat shock induces Hsp90 release from PIDD and PIDD nuclear translocation. Thus, Hsp90 has a major role in controlling PIDD functional activity.

MALT1 auto-proteolysis is essential for NF-κB-dependent gene transcription in activated lymphocytes.

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue 1 (MALT1) controls antigen receptor-mediated signalling to nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) through both its adaptor and protease function. Upon antigen stimulation, MALT1 forms a complex with BCL10 and CARMA1, which is essential for initial IκBα phosphorylation and NF-κB nuclear translocation. Parallel induction of MALT1 protease activity serves to inactivate negative regulators of NF-κB signalling, such as A20 and RELB. Here we demonstrate a key role for auto-proteolytic MALT1 cleavage in B- and T-cell receptor signalling. MALT1 cleavage occurred after Arginine 149, between the N-terminal death domain and the first immunoglobulin-like region, and did not affect its proteolytic activity. Jurkat T cells expressing an un-cleavable MALT1-R149A mutant showed unaltered initial IκBα phosphorylation and normal nuclear accumulation of NF-κB subunits. Nevertheless, MALT1 cleavage was required for optimal activation of NF-κB reporter genes and expression of the NF-κB targets IL-2 and CSF2. Transcriptome analysis confirmed that MALT1 cleavage after R149 was required to induce NF-κB transcriptional activity in Jurkat T cells. Collectively, these data demonstrate that auto-proteolytic MALT1 cleavage controls antigen receptor-induced expression of NF-κB target genes downstream of nuclear NF-κB accumulation.

Immune responses to airborne fungi and non-invasive airway diseases.

Inhalation of fungal particles is a ubiquitous way of exposure to microorganisms during human life; however, this exposure may promote or exacerbate respiratory diseases only in particular exposure conditions and human genetic background. Depending on the fungal species and form, fungal particles can induce symptoms in the lung by acting as irritants, aeroallergens or pathogens causing infection. Some thermophilic species can even act in all these three ways (e.g. Aspergillus, Penicillium), mesophilic species being only involved in allergic and/or non-allergic airway diseases (e.g. Cladosporium, Alternaria, Fusarium). The goal of the present review is to present the current knowledge on the interaction between airborne fungal particles and the host immune system, to illustrate the differences of immune sensing of different fungal species and to emphasise the importance of conducting research on non-conventional mesophilic fungal species. Indeed, the diversity of fungal species we inhale and the complexity of their composition have a direct impact on fungal particle recognition and immune system decision to tolerate or respond to those particles, eventually leading to collateral damages promoting airway pathologies.

Ex vivo analysis of human antigen-specific CD8+ T-cell responses: quality assessment of fluorescent HLA-A2 multimer and interferon-gamma ELISPOT assays for patient immune monitoring.

The authors developed a standardized approach for immune monitoring of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells within peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) that combines direct ex vivo analysis of Melan-A/MART-1 and influenza-specific CD8+ T cells with HLA-A2/peptide multimers and interferon-gamma ELISPOT assays. Here the authors assessed the quality of results obtained with 180 PBLs from healthy donors and melanoma patients. Reproducibility of the multimer assay was good (average of 15% variation). In the absence of in vivo antigen-specific T-cell responses, physiologic fluctuations of multimer-positive T cells was low, with variation coefficients of 20% for Melan-A and 28% for influenza-specific T cells. In contrast, patients with vaccination-induced T-cell responses had significantly increased T-cell frequencies clearly exceeding physiologic fluctuations. Comparable results were obtained with ELISPOT assays. In conclusion, this approach is well suited to assess T-cell responses as biologic endpoints in clinical vaccine studies.

Secretory component: a new role in secretory IgA-mediated immune exclusion in vivo.

Secretory immunoglobulin (Ig) A (SIgA) is essential in protecting mucosal surfaces. It is composed of at least two monomeric IgA molecules, covalently linked through the J chain, and secretory component (SC). We show here that a dimeric/polymeric IgA (IgA(d/p)) is more efficient when bound to SC in protecting mice against bacterial infection of the respiratory tract. We demonstrate that SC ensures, through its carbohydrate residues, the appropriate tissue localization of SIgA by anchoring the antibody to mucus lining the epithelial surface. This in turn impacts the localization and the subsequent clearance of bacteria. Thus, SC is directly involved in the SIgA function in vivo. Therefore, binding of IgA(d/p) to SC during the course of SIgA-mediated mucosal response constitutes a crucial step in achieving efficient protection of the epithelial barrier by immune exclusion.

Evaluation of the immune response to infection with metastatic and non-metastatic "Leishmania guyanensis" parasites

ABSTRACT : Les infections par le parasite Leishmania guyanensis se caractérisent par une dissémination depuis le site initial d'infection jusqu'aux tissus naso-pharyngés, responsable de la Leishmaniose à lésions secondaires muco-cutanées (LMC). Les lésions des patients atteints de LMC montrent une massive infiltration de cellules immunitaires, une réponse immunitaire élevée et la présence de parasites (bien qu'en très faible quantité). La LMC engendre une augmentation de l'expression de TNFa ainsi qu'un défaut dans le contrôle de la réponse immunitaire caractérisé par une absence de réponse à l'IL 10. La réponse immunitaire de l'hôte ainsi que la virulence du parasite sont deux facteurs reconnus pour le contrôle de l'infection. Le mécanisme de la pathogenèse de la LMC restent grandement incompris, surtout le mécanisme de dissémination de l'infection du site d'inoculation jusqu'aux sites secondaires d'infection (métastases) ainsi que les détails de la réponse de l'hôte contre le pathogène. Dans un modèle d'infection d' hamsters avec des parasites du Nouveau Monde, la classification des parasites Leishmania se fait en fonction de leur capacité à développer des métastases. Ce modéle d'infection a permis de caractériser différentes souches de parasites selon la classification de l'Organisation Mondiale de la Sante (OMS) tel que la souche de référence W>É-II/BR/78/M5313 qui est reconnue comme hautement métastatique alors que ces clones dérivés de M5313 montrent de grandes variations quand a leur capacité à créer des métastases. Les clones 13 et 21 sont métastatiques (M+) alors que les clones 3 et 17 sont nonmétastatiques (NI-). Les objectifs de cette thèse ont été d'étudier le rôle de la réponse immunitaire innée des macrophages après infection in vitro avec différents clones métastatiques et non-métastatiques du parasite L. guyanensis, ainsi que d'étudier la réponse immunitaire générée suite à une infection in vivo par les clones M+ et M- de L. guyanensis dans un modèle marin. L'analyse de la .réponse immunitaire des macrophages in vitro montrent qu'il y aune augmentation significative de leur statut d'activation après infection par des parasites M+ indiquée par la modulation des marqueurs d'activation de surface CD80, CD86 et CD40, ainsi que une augmentation significative de CXCL 10, CCLS, IL6 et TNFa au niveau transcription de l'ARNm et au niveau de la protéine. Cette phénomène d'activation a été observée chez les deux souches de souris C57BL/6 et BALB/c. L'utilisation d'un inhibiteur d'entrée des parasites (Cytochalsin D) ou d'un inhibiteur des fonctions endosomales (Chloroquine) diminue de manière significative la réponse des macrophages aux parasites M+. L'utilisation de macrophages déficients en TLR, MyD88, et TRIF a démontré que la réponse générée après infection par les parasites M+ était dépendante de la voie de signalisation de TRIF et TLR3. Lors d'infection in vivo par des parasites M5313, au moins 50% des souris BALB/c présentent un phénotype sensible caractérisé par des lésions non-nécrotiques qui ne guérissent pas, persistent plus de 13 semaines après infection et contiennent un nombre considérable de parasites. Ces souris développent une réponse immunitaire de type T helper 2 (Th2) avec un niveau élevé d'IL-4 et d'IL-10. Les autres souris ont un phénotype non-sensible, les souris développant peu ou pas de lésion, avec peu de parasites et une réponse immunitaire diminuée, caractérisée par un niveau faible d'IFNy, d'IL4 et d'IL10. De plus, les souris BALB/c infectées par un parasite L. guyanensis isolé à partir des lésions muco-cutanées d'un patient humain atteint de LMC ont démontrés un phénotype similaire aux souris infectées par la souche M5313 avec 50% des souris développant des lésions persistantes, alors qu'un parasite dérivé des lésions cutanées humains n'a montré qu'une faible sensibilité avec une lésion transitoire qui finit par guérir. Nous avons montré que la sensibilité de ces souris BALB/c dépend de l'IL-4 et de l'IL-10 car les souris IL-10-/sur fond génétique BALB/c ainsi que les souris BALB/c traitée avec de l'anti-IL4 étaient capables de contrôler l'infection par M5313. Les souris C57BL/6 sont résistantes à l'infection par le parasite M5313. Elles développent une lésion transitoire qui guérit 9 semaines après infection. Ces souris résistantes ont un très faible taux de parasites au site d'infection et développent une réponse immunitaire de type Thl avec un niveau élevé d'IFNr et peu d'IL4 et d'IL10. Les infections in vivo de souris déficientes en MyD88, TRIF, TLR3 ou TLR9 (sur fond génétique C57BL/6) ont indiqué que MyD88 et TLR9 étaient impliqués dans la résistance à l'infection par L. guyanensi, et que TRIF et TLR3 avaient un rôle important dans la sensibilité. Ce travail met en évidence le fait que la réponse immunitaire de l'hôte est modulée par le parasite selon leur caractérisation d'être soit M+ ou M-. Nous avons démontré également que plusieurs gènes et voies de signalisations étaient impliqués dans cette réponse favorisant le développement d'une LMC. ABSTRACT : Leishmania guyanensis parasites are able to disseminate from the initial site of cutaneous skin infection to the nasopharyngeal tissues resulting in destructive secondary lesions and the disease Mucocutaneous Leishmaniasis (MCL). The secondary lesions in patients have intense immune cell infiltration, elevated immune responses and the presence (albeit at low levels) of parasites. More specifically, MCL patients produce higher levels of TNFa and display impairment in their ability to control the immune response due to a defect in their ability to respond to IL10. Little is known about the pathogenesis of MCL, especially about the dissemination of the infection from the site of inoculation to secondary sites (metastasis) and the response of the host to the pathogen. The hamster model of L. guyanensis infection has previously characterized the WHO reference strain, L. guyanensis WHI/BR/78/M5313, as being highly metastatic. Clones of parasites derived from this reference strain show a differential ability to metastasize. This thesis studied the differential immune response generated by macrophages in vitro, or by mice in vivo, following infection with L. guyanensis parasites. A significant increase in the activation status of macrophages derived from C57BL/6 or BALB/c mice was observed after in vitro infection with L. guyanensis parasites when compared to non-metastatic parasites. This change in status was evidenced by the increased expression of surface activation markers, together with the chemokines, CXCL 10, CCLS, and cytokines, IL6 and TNFa. Furthermore, in vitro infection of macrophages isolated from mice deficient in either a specific Toll Like Receptor (TLR) or the adaptor molecules MyD88 or TRIF, indicated that the immune response generated following L. guyanensis metastatic parasite infection was reliant on the TRIF dependent TLR3 signalling pathway. In vivo footpad infection of BALB/c mice with the L. guyanensis M5313 parasites showed a reproducible susceptible phenotype, whereby at least 50% of infected mice developed non-healing, nonnecrosing lesions with high parasitemia that persisted over 13 weeks post infection. This phenotype was characterized by a Th2 type cytokine immune response with increased levels of IL4 and IL10 detected in the draining lymph nodes. IL 10 deficient mice on a BALB/c background, or BALB/c mice treated with anti-IL4 were able to control infection with L. guyanensis M5313 parasites, thereby proving that these cytokines were indeed implicated in the susceptibility to infection. Moreover, infection of BALB/c mice with patient isolated L. guyanensis parasites confirmed that MCL derived parasites were able to induce a susceptibility phenotype similar to that of L. guyanensis M5313. C57BL/6 mice, on the other hand, were highly resistant to infection with L. guyanensis M5313 parasites and produced transient footpad swelling that healed by week 9 post infection, together with low degrees of footpad parasitemia and a Thl polarized immune response. Infection of mice deficient in MyD88, TRIF, TLR3, and TLR9 (on a C57BL/6 background), indicated that MyD88 and TLR9 were involved in the resistance of these mice to infection, and that TRIF and TLR3 were involved in the susceptibility. This study has shown that the host response can be differentially modulated depending on the infecting parasite with several genes and pathways being identified that could be involved in promoting the development of MCL.

The concept of the inflammasome and its rheumatologic implications.

The inflammasome is a proteolytic complex that regulates IL1β and IL-18 secretion in macrophages and dendritic cells. Its plays a vital role in the control of the inflammatory and cellular responses to infectious and danger signals and is an essential part of the innate immune system. Four different inflammasomes have been identified so far, and the NLRP3-inflammasome has been the best-studied in relation to human disease. Activation of the NLRP3-inflammasome by microcrystals, such as monosodium urate (MSU) and basic calcium phosphate (BCP) crystals, leads to IL1β release, which in turn triggers local inflammation. Dysfunction of the NLRP3-inflammasome due to mutations of the NLRP3 gene is the cause of the auto-inflammatory syndrome CAPS. The symptoms and signs of inflammation in both conditions respond to IL1 blockade. IL1 inhibitors have also been used successfully in other idiopathic inflammatory diseases, suggesting that dysregulated inflammasome activity contributes to the pathogenesis of multiple diseases, but the precise underlying mechanisms remain to be identified.

Clinical Experience with Immune Monitoring for Cytomegalovirus in Solid-Organ Transplant Recipients.

Novel strategies are needed to further reduce the burden of cytomegalovirus (CMV) disease in solid-organ transplant (SOT) recipients. Measurement of the specific cell-mediated immunity against CMV can identify the actual risk for the development of CMV disease in a given patient. Thus, immune monitoring is an attractive strategy for individualizing the management of CMV after transplantation. A growing number of observational studies on immune monitoring for CMV have been published over recent years, although there is a lack of data coming from interventional trials. In high-risk patients, measurement of CMV-specific T-cell responses appropriately stratifies the risk of CMV disease after discontinuation of antiviral prophylaxis. Immune monitoring may also help to identify patients followed by the preemptive approach at low risk for progression to CMV disease. Pretransplant assessment of cell-mediated immunity in seropositive patients may predict the development of posttransplant CMV infection. Overall, these studies indicate that the use of cell-mediated immunity assays has the potential to improve the management of CMV disease in SOT recipients.

Malt1 protease inactivation efficiently dampens immune responses but causes spontaneous autoimmunity.

The protease activity of the paracaspase Malt1 has recently gained interest as a drug target for immunomodulation and the treatment of diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. To address the consequences of Malt1 protease inactivation on the immune response in vivo, we generated knock-in mice expressing a catalytically inactive C472A mutant of Malt1 that conserves its scaffold function. Like Malt1-deficient mice, knock-in mice had strong defects in the activation of lymphocytes, NK and dendritic cells, and the development of B1 and marginal zone B cells and were completely protected against the induction of autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Malt1 inactivation also protected the mice from experimental induction of colitis. However, Malt1 knock-in mice but not Malt1-deficient mice spontaneously developed signs of autoimmune gastritis that correlated with an absence of Treg cells, an accumulation of T cells with an activated phenotype and high serum levels of IgE and IgG1. Thus, removal of the enzymatic activity of Malt1 efficiently dampens the immune response, but favors autoimmunity through impaired Treg development, which could be relevant for therapeutic Malt1-targeting strategies.