Immunization of BALB/c mice with Helicobacter urease B induces a T helper 2 response absent in Helicobacter infection.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Infection with Helicobacter induces a T helper type 1 response in mice and humans. Mice can be cured or protected from infection with Helicobacter by mucosal immunization with recombinant H. pylori urease B subunit (rUreB). This study characterizes the immune response of infected mice immunized with rUreB. METHODS: BALB/c mice were infected with H. felis. Two weeks later, they were orally immunized four times with rUreB and cholera toxin (CT) at weekly intervals. Controls were only infected or sham-immunized with CT. Animals were killed at various times after immunization. Splenic CD4(+) cells were obtained and cultured in vitro with rUreB to evaluate antigen-specific proliferation and induction of interferon gamma and interleukin 4 secretion. RESULTS: All rUreB-immunized mice (n = 8) were cured from infection 3 weeks after the fourth immunization. Immunization induced a proliferative response of splenic CD4(+) cells, a progressive decrease in interferon gamma secretion, and a concomitant increase in interleukin 4 secretion after each immunization. A simultaneous increase in rUreB specific serum immunoglobulin G1 levels was observed in infected/immunized mice. CONCLUSIONS: In BALB/c mice, therapeutic mucosal immunization with rUreB induces progressively a Th2 CD4(+) T cell response resulting in the elimination of the pathogen.

Redundant Notch1 and Notch2 signaling is necessary for IFNγ secretion by T helper 1 cells during infection with Leishmania major.

The protective immune response to intracellular parasites involves in most cases the differentiation of IFNγ-secreting CD4(+) T helper (Th) 1 cells. Notch receptors regulate cell differentiation during development but their implication in the polarization of peripheral CD4(+) T helper 1 cells is not well understood. Of the four Notch receptors, only Notch1 (N1) and Notch2 (N2) are expressed on activated CD4(+) T cells. To investigate the role of Notch in Th1 cell differentiation following parasite infection, mice with T cell-specific gene ablation of N1, N2 or both (N1N2(ΔCD4Cre)) were infected with the protozoan parasite Leishmania major. N1N2(ΔCD4Cre) mice, on the C57BL/6 L. major-resistant genetic background, developed unhealing lesions and uncontrolled parasitemia. Susceptibility correlated with impaired secretion of IFNγ by draining lymph node CD4(+) T cells and increased secretion of the IL-5 and IL-13 Th2 cytokines. Mice with single inactivation of N1 or N2 in their T cells were resistant to infection and developed a protective Th1 immune response, showing that CD4(+) T cell expression of N1 or N2 is redundant in driving Th1 differentiation. Furthermore, we show that Notch signaling is required for the secretion of IFNγ by Th1 cells. This effect is independent of CSL/RBP-Jκ, the major effector of Notch receptors, since L. major-infected mice with a RBP-Jκ deletion in their T cells were able to develop IFNγ-secreting Th1 cells, kill parasites and heal their lesions. Collectively, we demonstrate here a crucial role for RBP-Jκ-independent Notch signaling in the differentiation of a functional Th1 immune response following L. major infection.

Messenger RNA expression of transporter and ion channel genes in undifferentiated and differentiated Caco-2 cells compared to human intestines.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this work was to study the influence of cell differentiation on the mRNA expression of transporters and channels in Caco-2 cells and to assess Caco-2 cells as a model for carrier-mediated drug transport in the intestines. METHOD: Gene mRNA expression was measured using a custom-designed microarray chip with 750 deoxyoligonucleotide probes (70mers). Each oligomer was printed four times on poly-lysine-coated glass slides. Expression profiles were expressed as ratio values between fluorescence intensities of Cy3 and Cy5 dye-labeled cDNA derived from poly(A) + RNA samples of Caco-2 cells and total RNA of human intestines. RESULTS: Significant differences in the mRNA expression profile of transporters and channels were observed upon differentiation of Caco-2 cells from 5 days to 2 weeks in culture, including changes for MAT8, S-protein, and Nramp2. Comparing Caco-2 cells of different passage number revealed few changes in mRNAs except for GLUT3, which was down-regulated 2.4-fold within 13 passage numbers. Caco-2 cells had a similar expression profile when either cultured in flasks or on filters but differed more strongly from human small and large intestine, regardless of the differentiation state of Caco-2 cells. Expression of several genes highly transcribed in small or large intestines differed fourfold or more in Caco-2 cells. CONCLUSIONS: Although Caco-2 cells have proven a suitable model for studying carrier-mediated transport in human intestines, the expression of specific transporter and ion channel genes may differ substantially.

Redundant Notch1 and Notch2 signaling is necessary for IFNγ secretion by T helper 1 cells during infection with Leishmania major.

The protective immune response to intracellular parasites involves in most cases the differentiation of IFNγ-secreting CD4(+) T helper (Th) 1 cells. Notch receptors regulate cell differentiation during development but their implication in the polarization of peripheral CD4(+) T helper 1 cells is not well understood. Of the four Notch receptors, only Notch1 (N1) and Notch2 (N2) are expressed on activated CD4(+) T cells. To investigate the role of Notch in Th1 cell differentiation following parasite infection, mice with T cell-specific gene ablation of N1, N2 or both (N1N2(ΔCD4Cre)) were infected with the protozoan parasite Leishmania major. N1N2(ΔCD4Cre) mice, on the C57BL/6 L. major-resistant genetic background, developed unhealing lesions and uncontrolled parasitemia. Susceptibility correlated with impaired secretion of IFNγ by draining lymph node CD4(+) T cells and increased secretion of the IL-5 and IL-13 Th2 cytokines. Mice with single inactivation of N1 or N2 in their T cells were resistant to infection and developed a protective Th1 immune response, showing that CD4(+) T cell expression of N1 or N2 is redundant in driving Th1 differentiation. Furthermore, we show that Notch signaling is required for the secretion of IFNγ by Th1 cells. This effect is independent of CSL/RBP-Jκ, the major effector of Notch receptors, since L. major-infected mice with a RBP-Jκ deletion in their T cells were able to develop IFNγ-secreting Th1 cells, kill parasites and heal their lesions. Collectively, we demonstrate here a crucial role for RBP-Jκ-independent Notch signaling in the differentiation of a functional Th1 immune response following L. major infection.

Follicular helper T cells: implications in neoplastic hematopathology.

A distinct subset of T helper cells, named follicular T helper cells (T(FH), has been recently described. T(FH) cells are characterized by their homing capacities in the germinal centers of B-cell follicles where they interact with B cells, supporting B-cell survival and antibody responses. T(FH) cells can be identified by the expression of several markers including the chemokine CXCL13, the costimulatory molecules PD1 and inducible costimulator, and the transcription factor BCL6. They appear to be relevant markers for the diagnosis of angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL) and have helped to recognize subsets of peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified, with nodal or cutaneous presentation expressing T(FH) antigens that might be related to AITL. In B-cell neoplasms, T(FH) cells are present within the microenvironment of nodular lymphocyte-predominant Hodgkin lymphoma and follicular lymphoma, where they likely support the growth of neoplastic germinal center-derived B cells. Interestingly, the amount of PD1+ cells in the neoplastic follicles might have a favorable impact on the outcome of follicular lymphoma patients. Altogether, the availability of antibodies directed to T(FH)-associated molecules has important diagnostic and prognostic implications in hematopathology. In addition, T(FH) cells could represent interesting targets in T(FH)-derived lymphomas such as AITL, or in some B-cell neoplasms where they act as part of the tumor microenvironment.

Follicular helper T cells serve as the major CD4 T cell compartment for HIV-1 infection, replication, and production.

In the present study, we have investigated the distribution of HIV-specific and HIV-infected CD4 T cells within different populations of memory CD4 T cells isolated from lymph nodes of viremic HIV-infected subjects. Four memory CD4 T cell populations were identified on the basis of the expression of CXCR5, PD-1, and Bcl-6: CXCR5(-)PD-1(-)Bcl-6(-), CXCR5(+)PD-1(-)Bcl-6(-), CXCR5(-)PD-1(+)Bcl-6(-), and CXCR5(+)PD-1(+)Bcl-6(+). On the basis of Bcl-6 expression and functional properties (IL-21 production and B cell help), the CXCR5(+)PD-1(+)Bcl-6(+) cell population was considered to correspond to the T follicular helper (Tfh) cell population. We show that Tfh and CXCR5(-)PD-1(+) cell populations are enriched in HIV-specific CD4 T cells, and these populations are significantly increased in viremic HIV-infected subjects as compared with healthy subjects. The Tfh cell population contained the highest percentage of CD4 T cells harboring HIV DNA and was the most efficient in supporting productive infection in vitro. Replication competent HIV was also readily isolated from Tfh cells in subjects with nonprogressive infection and low viremia (<1,000 HIV RNA copies). However, only the percentage of Tfh cells correlated with the levels of plasma viremia. These results demonstrate that Tfh cells serve as the major CD4 T cell compartment for HIV infection, replication, and production.

Evaluation of the interactions between multiwalled carbon nanotubes and caco-2 cells

The aim of this study was to determine whether multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWNCT) are taken up by and are toxic to human intestinal enterocytes using the Caco-2 cell model. Caco-2 cells were exposed to 50 ?g/ml MWCNT (oxidized or pristine) for 24 h, and experiments were repeated in the presence of 2.5 mg/L natural organic matter. Cells displayed many of the properties that characterize enterocytes, such as apical microvilli, basolateral basement membrane, and glycogen. The cell monolayers also displayed tight junctions and electrical resistance. Exposure to pristine and oxidized MWCNT, with or without natural organic matter, did not markedly affect viability, which was assessed by measuring activity of released lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and staining with propidium iodide. Ultrastructural analysis revealed some damage to microvilli colocalized with the MWCNT; however, neither type of MWCNT was taken up by Caco-2 cells. In contrast, pristine and oxidized MWCNT were taken up by the macrophage RAW 264.7 line. Our study suggests that intestinal enterocytes cells do not take up MWCNT. [Authors]

The murine model of infection with Leishmania major and its importance for the deciphering of mechanisms underlying differences in Th cell differentiation in mice from different genetic backgrounds.

Mice from the majority of inbred strains are resistant to infection by Leishmania major, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite of macrophages in the mammalian host. In contrast, mice from BALB strains are unable to control infection and develop progressive disease. In this model of infection, genetically determined resistance and susceptibility have been clearly shown to result from the appearance of parasite-specific CD4+ T helper 1 or T helper 2 cells, respectively. This murine model of infection is considered as one of the best experimental systems for the study of the mechanisms operating in vivo at the initiation of polarised T helper 1 and T helper 2 cell maturation. Among the several factors influencing Th cell development, cytokines themselves critically regulate this process. The results accumulated during the last years have clarified some aspects of the role played by cytokines in Th cell differentiation. They are providing critical information that may ultimately lead to the rational devise of means by which to tailor immune responses to the effector functions that are most efficient in preventing and/or controlling infections with pathogens.

IL-4 rapidly produced by V beta 4 V alpha 8 CD4+ T cells instructs Th2 development and susceptibility to Leishmania major in BALB/c mice.

BALB/c mice develop aberrant T helper 2 (Th2) responses and suffer progressive disease after infection with Leishmania major. These outcomes depend on the production of interleukin-4 (IL-4) early after infection. Here we demonstrate that the burst of IL-4 mRNA, peaking in draining lymph nodes of BALB/c mice 16 hr after infection, occurs within CD4+ T cells that express V beta 4 V alpha 8 T cell receptors. In contrast to control and V beta 6-deficient BALB/c mice, V beta 4-deficient BALB/c mice were resistant to infection, demonstrating the role of these cells in Th2 development. The early IL-4 response was absent in these mice, and T helper 1 responses occurred following infection. Recombinant LACK antigen from L. major induced comparable IL-4 production in V beta 4 V alpha 8 CD4+ cells. Thus, the IL-4 required for Th2 development and susceptibility to L. major is produced by a restricted population of V beta 4 V alpha 8 CD4+ T cells after cognate interaction with a single antigen from this complex organism.

Swimming prevents vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque development in hypertensive 2-kidney, 1-clip mice by modulating angiotensin II type 1 receptor expression independently from hemodynamic changes.

Exercise is known to reduce cardiovascular risk. However, its role on atherosclerotic plaque stabilization is unknown. Apolipoprotein E(-/-) mice with vulnerable (2-kidney, 1-clip: angiotensin [Ang] II-dependent hypertension model) or stable atherosclerotic plaques (1-kidney, 1-clip: Ang II-independent hypertension model and normotensive shams) were used for experiments. Mice swam regularly for 5 weeks and were compared with sedentary controls. Exercised 2-kidney, 1-clip mice developed significantly more stable plaques (thinner fibrous cap, decreased media degeneration, layering, macrophage content, and increased smooth muscle cells) than sedentary controls. Exercise did not affect blood pressure. Conversely, swimming significantly reduced aortic Ang II type 1 receptor mRNA levels, whereas Ang II type 2 receptor expression remained unaffected. Sympathetic tone also significantly diminished in exercised 2-kidney, 1-clip mice compared with sedentary ones; renin and aldosterone levels tended to increase. Ang II type 1 downregulation was not accompanied by improved endothelial function, and no difference in balance among T-helper 1, T-helper 2, and T regulatory cells was observed between sedentary and exercised mice. These results show for the first time, in a mouse model of Ang II-mediated vulnerable plaques, that swimming prevents atherosclerosis progression and plaque vulnerability. This benefit is likely mediated by downregulating aortic Ang II type 1 receptor expression independent from any hemodynamic change. Ang II type 1 downregulation may protect the vessel wall from the Ang II proatherogenic effects. Moreover, data presented herein further emphasize the pivotal and blood pressure-independent role of Ang II in atherogenesis.

Virus-like particles induce robust human T-helper cell responses.

Among synthetic vaccines, virus-like particles (VLPs) are used for their ability to induce strong humoral responses. Very little is reported on VLP-based-vaccine-induced CD4(+) T-cell responses, despite the requirement of helper T cells for antibody isotype switching. Further knowledge on helper T cells is also needed for optimization of CD8(+) T-cell vaccination. Here, we analysed human CD4(+) T-cell responses to vaccination with MelQbG10, which is a Qβ-VLP covalently linked to a long peptide derived from the melanoma self-antigen Melan-A. In all analysed patients, we found strong antibody responses of mainly IgG1 and IgG3 isotypes, and concomitant Th1-biased CD4(+) T-cell responses specific for Qβ. Although less strong, comparable B- and CD4(+) T-cell responses were also found specific for the Melan-A cargo peptide. Further optimization is required to shift the response more towards the cargo peptide. Nevertheless, the data demonstrate the high potential of VLPs for inducing humoral and cellular immune responses by mounting powerful CD4(+) T-cell help.

A link between FXYD3 (Mat-8)-mediated Na,K-ATPase regulation and differentiation of Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells.

FXYD3 (Mat-8) proteins are regulators of Na,K-ATPase. In normal tissue, FXYD3 is mainly expressed in stomach and colon, but it is also overexpressed in cancer cells, suggesting a role in tumorogenesis. We show that FXYD3 silencing has no effect on cell proliferation but promotes cell apoptosis and prevents cell differentiation of human colon adenocarcinoma cells (Caco-2), which is reflected by a reduction in alkaline phosphatase and villin expression, a change in several other differentiation markers, and a decrease in transepithelial resistance. Inhibition of cell differentiation in FXYD3-deficient cells is accompanied by an increase in the apparent Na+ and K+ affinities of Na,K-ATPase, reflecting the absence of Na,K-pump regulation by FXYD3. In addition, we observe a decrease in the maximal Na,K-ATPase activity due to a decrease in its turnover number, which correlates with a change in Na,K-ATPase isozyme expression that is characteristic of cancer cells. Overall, our results suggest an important role of FXYD3 in cell differentiation of Caco-2 cells. One possibility is that FXYD3 silencing prevents proper regulation of Na,K-ATPase, which leads to perturbation of cellular Na+ and K+ homeostasis and changes in the expression of Na,K-ATPase isozymes, whose functional properties are incompatible with Caco-2 cell differentiation.

The role of Notch receptors in T helper differentiation

After encountering antigens, naïve CD4+ Τ cells can differentiate into various effector Τ helper (Th) cell subsets, including CD4+ Thi, Th2, Thi7, regulatory Τ cells and the recently described follicular Τ helper cells (TFH cells). To date, most of the studies used either gain-of-function approaches that do not reflect the physiological Notch signaling intensity or loss-of-function models that block the entire Notch pathway. The contribution of single Notch receptors during Th differentiation occurring upon infection has not been investigated yet. In the present thesis, we wanted to assess the individual role of Notchi and Notch2 in Th differentiation, by using mice with Τ cell-specific deletion of Notchi, Notch2 or both (NiN2/iCD4Cre) in different models of infection/immunization.¦In the first part, we characterized the role of Notchi and Notch2 in Thi differentiation. We used experimental infection with the protozoan parasite Leishmania major, known to induce a protective Thi immune response in mice on the C57BL/6 background. Mice deficient for both Notchi and Notch2 developed unhealing lesions and were unable to control the parasite burden in their footpad. A profound defect in IFNy secretion by CD4+ Τ cells was shown to be responsible for the susceptibility of these mice. Although CD4+ Τ cells did not secrete IFNy following L. major infection, they exhibited higher IFNymRNA expression as well as higher frequency of CD4+IFNy+Τ cells in dLN. Altogether, these data indicate that Notch is dispensable for the differentiation of Thi cells expressing IFNy but controls, directly or not, the secretion of IFNy, allowing the development of a fully functional Thi immune response.¦In the second part of this thesis, we determined whether Notch is involved in differentiation of follicular Τ helper (TFH) cells. Using different models of immunization (NP-CGG, Schistosoma mansoni eggs) or infection (Leishmania mexicana), we showed that NiN2ACD4Cre mice were unable to generate TFH cells, displayed impaired germinal center (GC) formation as well as a profound defect in high affinity specific-antibodies secretion. We demonstrated an essential and previously unknown role of Notch in TFH cell development, the consequent GC formation and high affinity antibodies secretion, although the mechanisms by which Notch affects TFH development remain to be clearly demonstrated.¦-¦Lors d'une réponse immune, les lymphocytes Τ CD4+ se différencient en différentes sous- populations de lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires (T helper ou Th en anglais) incluant les populations de cellules Thi, Th2, Thn.7, Τ régulatrices ou Τ folliculaires. De nombreuses études ont montré un rôle de la voie de signalisation Notch dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires, bien que les résultats soient controversés. A ce jour, la majorité de ces études sont basées sur des modèles de gain de fonction qui ne reflètent pas le niveau physiologique du signal ou des modèles de perte de fonction pour lesquels toute la voie de signalisation est bloquée. De ce fait, nous avons voulu établir le rôle individuel de Notchi et Notch2 dans la réponse immune de type Thi et dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires folliculaires avec l'aide de souris déficientes pour Notchi, Notch2 ou les 2 (NiN2ACD4Cre) à la surface de leurs cellules T.¦Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous avons analysé le rôle de Notch dans la différentiation de type Thi suite à infection avec le parasite Leishmania major, connu pour induire une forte réponse Thi dans des souris de souche C57BL/6. Les souris déficientes pour Notchi et Notch2 développent une importante lésion et sont incapables de contrôler la prolifération du parasite au site d'infection. Le profond défaut de la sécrétion d'IFNy par les cellules Τ des ganglions drainants est probablement responsable de la susceptibilité de ces souris à L. major. Bien que les cellules Τ ne sécrètent pas d'IFNy, nous avons observé des niveaux plus importants d'expression au niveau de l'ARN messager, et une proportion plus élevée de cellules positives pour CD4 et IFNy. Ces résultats indiquent que Notch est nécessaire pour la sécrétion d'IFNy mais pas pour la différentiation de cellules compétentes pour l'IFNy.¦Dans un second temps, nous avons voulu déterminer si Notch est impliqué dans la différentiation des cellules Τ folliculaires. En utilisant divers modèles d'immunisation (avec NP-CGG ou des oeufs de Schistosoma mansoni) ou d'infection (avec L. mexicana), nous avons montré que les souris NlN2ACD4Cre sont incapables de générer des cellules Τ folliculaires. En conséquence, la formation des centres germinatifs et la sécrétion d'anticorps de haute affinité sont profondément affectés. Nous avons démontré dans cette seconde partie un rôle crucial et inconnu à ce jour de Notch dans la différentiation des cellules Τ et en conséquence dans la formation des centres germinatifs et la sécrétion des anticorps de haute affinité, bien que les mécanismes par lesquels Notch contrôle cette différentiation restent à identifier.¦-¦Lors d'une réponse immune, les lymphocytes Τ CD// se différencient en différentes sous- populations de lymphocytes Τ auxiliaires de types Thi, Th2, Thi7, régulatrices ou folliculaires, définies selon la sécrétion de cytokines spécifiques. Le rôle de ces sous-populations dans le contrôle de diverses infections ou leur association avec de nombreuses maladies rend la compréhension des mécanismes de différentiation de ces cellules particulièrement importante. De nombreux facteurs sont impliqués dans ce processus, tels que la présence de diverses cytokines dans l'environnement, la nature de l'antigène ou encore la force de la stimulation. Par ailleurs, de nombreuses études ont montré un rôle de la voie de signalisation Notch dans la différentiation des lymphocytes T, bien que les résultats soient controversés. Dans cette thèse, nous avons voulu évaluer le rôle individuel des récepteurs Notch dans la différentiation des cellules Τ auxiliaires de type Thi et folliculaires à l'aide de souris dont les récepteurs Notch sont spécifiquement absents à la surface des lymphocytes T.¦Dans la première partie, nous avons utilisé le modèle d'infection au parasite Leishmania major, connu pour induire une forte réponse protectrice de type Thi dans la majorité des souches de souris. Suite à l'infection, les souris déficientes pour les récepteurs Notch sont incapables de contrôler la prolifération du parasite et développent une importante lésion au site d'infection. Cette susceptibilité est due à l'incapacité des cellules Τ auxiliaires à sécréter une cytokine spécifique des cellules de type Thi et nécessaire à l'éradication du parasite, l'IFNy. Ces résultats indiquent que les récepteurs Notch sont indispensables au développement d'une réponse Thi fonctionnelle, permettant la guérison suite à l'infection avec L. major.¦Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous avons voulu déterminer si Notch est impliqué dans la différentiation des lymphocytes Τ folliculaires. Ces cellules ont la particularité d'aider les lymphocytes Β à former des centres germinatifs au sein desquels les lymphocytes Β prolifèrent et sécrètent des anticorps, un processus nécessaire à la protection contre les pathogènes. Actuellement, l'efficacité de la majorité des vaccins repose sur la sécrétion d'anticorps par les lymphocytes B, aidés par les cellules Τ folliculaires. En raison du rôle important de ces cellules dans l'éradication des pathogènes et lors d'un processus de vaccination, il est important de connaître les facteurs et les mécanismes permettant la différentiation de ces cellules. Dans cette étude, nous montrons que la formation des cellules Τ folliculaires dépend de la voie de signalisation Notch, impliquant un rôle essentiel de cette molécule dans l'induction de la sécrétion d'anticorps par les lymphocytes B.

Expansion of gamma delta+ T cells in BALB/c mice infected with Leishmania major is dependent upon Th2-type CD4+ T cells.

T cells belong to either the alpha beta+ or gamma delta+ lineage as defined by their antigen receptor. Although both T-cell subsets have been shown to be involved in the immune response to the parasite Leishmania major, very little is known about possible interactions between these two populations. In this study, using a mouse model of infection with L. major, we showed that expansion of a subset of gamma delta+ T cells in vivo is dependent upon the presence of alpha beta+ CD4+ T cells. Moreover, this effect appears to be mediated via the secretion of lymphokines by CD4+ cells with a T-helper 2 (Th2) functional phenotype. Results showing that activation of Th2-type cells in mice treated with anti-immunoglobulin D antibodies or infected with Nippostrongylus brasiliensis also results in gamma delta+ T-cell expansion suggest that this effect of the Th2-type CD4+ cells is a general phenomenon not restricted to infection with L. major.