Do you work or do you study? Children's work in a comparative historical perspective

In this paper we compare two historical scenarios very different one to each other bothin institutional and geographical terms. What they have in common is the situation ofrelative poverty of most of the population. On the one side we are dealing withhistorical industrializing Catalonia in the North East of Spain, a country exhibiting pooreconomic yields in the context of European and non European industrializing nations inthe 19th century. We compare children s work patterns in 19th century Catalonia withthose of current developing countries in Latin America, Africa and South and East Asia.This kind of exercise in which the nexus of the comparison are the levels of wealth ofcountries that are unsuccessful to achieve high standards of economic growth allows usto combine the micro historical analysis (in the Catalan case) with the macrocomparative approach in current developing countries. By means of both, the microhistorical analysis and the macro regression analysis we obtain the result that adultwomen s skills and real wages are a key factor when we want to explain the patterns ofchildren work. While female real wages increased a sharp rate in 19th century Cataloniawe obtain very different results in the case of developing countries. This differentgender bias helps to explain why in some cases children continue to work and also whysome parts of the world continue to be poor according to our regression analysis.

The effects of a universal child benefit

I study the impact of a universal child benefit on fertility and family well-being. I exploitthe unanticipated introduction of a new, sizeable, unconditional child benefit in Spain in2007, granted to all mothers giving birth on or after July 1, 2007. The regressiondiscontinuity-type design allows for a credible identification of the causal effects. I find thatthe benefit did lead to a significant increase in fertility, as intended, part of it coming froman immediate reduction in abortions. On the unintended side, I find that families whoreceived the benefit did not increase their overall expenditure or their consumption ofdirectly child-related goods and services. Instead, eligible mothers stayed out of the laborforce significantly longer after giving birth, which in turn led to their children spending lesstime in formal child care and more time with their mother during their first year of life. Ialso find that couples who received the benefit were less likely to break up the year afterhaving the child, although this effect was only short-term. Taken together, the resultssuggest that child benefits of this kind may successfully increase fertility, as well asaffecting family well-being through their impact on maternal time at home and familystability.

Recessions and babie's health

We study the effect of the business cycle on the health of newborn babies using 30 years of birth certificate data for Spain. Exploiting regional variation over time, we find that babies are born healthier when the local unemployment rate is high. Although fertility is lower during recessions, the effect on health is not the result of selection (healthier mothers being more likely to conceive when unemployment is high). We match multiple births to the same parents and find that the main result survives the inclusion of parents fixed-effects. We then explore a range of maternal behaviors as potential channels. Fertility-age women do not appear to engage in significantly healthier behaviors during recessions (in terms of exercise, nutrition, smoking and drinking). However, they are more likely to be out of work. Maternal employment during pregnancy is in turn negatively correlated with babies' health. We conclude that maternal employment is a plausible mediating channel.

Immigration, family responsibilities and the labor supply of skilled native women

This paper investigates the effects of Spain s large recent immigration wave on thelabor supply of highly skilled native women. We hypothesize that female immigration led to an increase in the supply of affordable household services, such as housekeeping and child or elderly care. As a result, i) native females with high earnings potential were able to increase their labor supply, and ii) the effects were larger on skilled women whose labor supply was heavily constrained by family responsibilities. Our evidence indicates that over the last decade immigration led to an important expansion in the size of the household services sector and to an increase in the labor supply of women in high-earning occupations (of about 2 hours per week). We also find that immigration allowed skilled native women to return to work sooner after childbirth, to stay in the workforce longer when having elderly dependents in the household, and to postpone retirement. Methodologically, we show that the availability of even limited Registry data makes it feasible to conduct the analysis using quarterly household survey data, as opposed to having to rely on the decennial Census.

The determinants of the prevalence of single mothers: A cross-country analysis

This paper examines the effect of public assistance, labor market and marriage marketconditions on the prevalence of single mother families across countries and over time. Amultinomial logit derived from a random utility approach is estimated using individualleveldata for 14 countries. I find evidence that increases in the level of public support are significantly and positively associated with a higher incidence of both never marriedand divorced mothers. The results also suggest that single mothers are more prevalentwhen female wages are lower. Higher male earnings and employment opportunities in awoman s marriage market appear to lead to fewer never married mothers, but more divorced mothers. Higher child support or alimony payments are associated with a higher prevalence of divorced mothers.

Malthusian dynamism and the rise of Europe: Make war, not love

This paper argues that Malthusian regimes are capable of sustained changes in per capita incomes. Shifting mortality and fertility schedules can lead to different steady-state income levels, with long periods of growth during the transition. Europe checked the downward pressure on wages through late marriage, which reduced fertility, and a mortality regime that combined high death rates with high incomes. We argue that both emerged as a result of the Black Death.

Annual reproductive cycle and fecundity of Scorpaena notata (Teleostei, Scorpaenidae)

Scorpaena notata (Teleostei: Scorpaenidae) is an oviparous species with external fertilisation that shows some unusual features in its gonadal morphology and gametogenesis. In this work we analyse the annual reproductive cycle and the fecundity of this species by studying the monthly histological changes in the gonads and of various indices related to reproduction. Sexual dimorphism does not occur in the population we studied, which is clearly dominated by males. Multiple spawning takes place between July and October, consisting of between 6,000 and 33,000 eggs per female, each of about 500 µm in diameter. The fecundity of the species is determined by the size and weight of the individuals

Estudi edàfic dels boscos joves de pi negre del Parc Nacional d'Aigüestortes i Sant Maurici

Estudiem les característiques edàfiques del sòl dels boscos joves de pi negre (Pinus uncinata) de l’estatge subalpí del Parc Nacional d’Aigüestortes i Estany de Sant Maurici corresponents a àrees de reforestació entre els anys 1956 i 2008. Aquest estudi s’ha fet de 29 parcel•les d’aquesta zona situades sobre diferents tipus de substrat, orientació i pendent. S’ha caracteritzat el sòl a partir de l’anàlisi de textura, matèria orgànica, nitrogen total, fòsfor, sodi, potassi, magnesi, calci, capacitat d’intercanvi catiònic, acidesa del sòl, relació C/N. Els resultats confirmen que es tracta de sòls àcids amb un elevat contingut de matèria orgànica a l’horitzó superficial (0-5 cm) i majoritàriament tenen humus de tipus moder. Això fa que aquest tingui valors de nitrogen total elevats. Gràcies al pH àcid i els continguts de potassi, calci i magnesi tindrem una bona fertilitat ja que la solubilitat i assimilació dels nutrients del sòl serà bona. Tots els valors obtinguts disminueixen en profunditat i mostren una gran variabilitat entre les parcel•les estudiades.

Pro-inflammatory gene expression and neurotoxic effects of activated microglia are attenuated by absence of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein beta

Background. Microglia and astrocytes respond to homeostatic disturbances with profound changes of gene expression. This response, known as glial activation or neuroinflammation, can be detrimental to the surrounding tissue. The transcription factor CCAAT/enhancer binding protein ß (C/EBPß) is an important regulator of gene expression in inflammation but little is known about its involvement in glial activation. To explore the functional role of C/EBPß in glial activation we have analyzed pro-inflammatory gene expression and neurotoxicity in murine wild type and C/EBPß-null glial cultures. Methods. Due to fertility and mortality problems associated with the C/EBPß-null genotype we developed a protocol to prepare mixed glial cultures from cerebral cortex of a single mouse embryo with high yield. Wild-type and C/EBPß-null glial cultures were compared in terms of total cell density by Hoechst-33258 staining; microglial content by CD11b immunocytochemistry; astroglial content by GFAP western blot; gene expression by quantitative real-time PCR, western blot, immunocytochemistry and Griess reaction; and microglial neurotoxicity by estimating MAP2 content in neuronal/microglial cocultures. C/EBPß DNA binding activity was evaluated by electrophoretic mobility shift assay and quantitative chromatin immunoprecipitation. Results. C/EBPß mRNA and protein levels, as well as DNA binding, were increased in glial cultures by treatment with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or LPS + interferon ¿ (IFN¿). Quantitative chromatin immunoprecipitation showed binding of C/EBPß to pro-inflammatory gene promoters in glial activation in a stimulus- and gene-dependent manner. In agreement with these results, LPS and LPS+IFN¿ induced different transcriptional patterns between pro-inflammatory cytokines and NO synthase-2 genes. Furthermore, the expressions of IL-1ß and NO synthase-2, and consequent NO production, were reduced in the absence of C/EBPß. In addition, neurotoxicity elicited by LPS+IFN¿-treated microglia co-cultured with neurons was completely abolished by the absence of C/EBPß in microglia.

Utopías y demografía. Escenario de un futuro a evitar: El envejecimiento y el conflicto entre generaciones

Los problemas de población pueden ser considerados desde un punto de vista sociológico, como conflicto social entre grupos insolidarios que defienden su propio interés.Frente al dilema ético de los límites de la investigación y de su aplicación al ser humano y desde el punto de vista social; el futuro se puede plantear en términos de egoísmo o de solidaridad, de derechos o de disminución de recursos, de enfrentamiento o de consenso.

Fecundidad diferencial de distintas subpoblaciones de mujeres en España: una diferencia no tan grande

La sombra de las grandes diferencias de fecundidad se cierne otra vez sobre las poblaciones europeas. Siempre se ha temido al de fuera. La aportación al crecimiento natural de las poblaciones foráneas ha constituido un leit-motif en Demografía en el siglo pasado. El miedo no se basa en el tamaño de la familia; o sea la cantidad de hijos que tienen las mujeres venidas de fuera, sino en las consecuencias a largo plazo. La cuestión que provoca temores se centra en la proporción en que las generaciones futuras estarán formadas por personas cuyos padres serán de fuera.

El reemplazo por las migraciones: natalidad y fecundidad de los extranjeros en España

Resulta muy difícil estimar el aporte al crecimiento natural de las personas venidas de fueras y nuevos residentes, de acuerdo con la propuesta de Naciones Unidas. Históricamente, No ha habido acuerdo acerca de la fecundidad de los migrantes. Andorka consideró que la migración producía un efecto depresor en la fecundidad. Estudios sobre la fecundidad de los migrantes internos en la sociedad catalana han mostrado el contraste entre un creciente indicador sintético de fecundidad (ISF) y un efecto reducido en la fecundidad longitudinal. Un intento de explicación basado en el tiempo, nacimientos pospuestos y adaptación, se presenta. Se trata de una combinación de la propuesta de Andorka del efecto depresor de la fecundidad, con un segundo tiempo de recuperación en destino. Esta Hipótesis en dos Tiempos (H2T) tiene carácter tentativo. Considera sólo un efecto de calendario. Se utilizan datos oficiales de la Encuesta de Fecundidad de 1999, de un Censo anterior y de natalidad. La H2T se considera una explicación posible de las altas tasas de natalidad de Europa y América.Estimaciones sobre la evolución de los nacimientos futuros de mujeres extranjeras, en al menos dos escenarios, son contemplados al final del artículo.

Documento sobre salud sexual y reproductiva en la adolescencia

El grup ha analitzat els problemes existents quant a la salut sexual i reproductiva en l'adolescència i la validesa del consentimentinformat dels menors. Aquesta qüestió requereix un debat social informat, encaminat a assolir el consens suficient per portar a terme les actuacions necessàries -d'acord amb la normativa ja existent per a la majoria dels supòsits- que protegeixin l'interès del menor, considerat en la nostra legislació com sempre preferent.

Utopías y demografía. Escenario de un futuro a evitar: El envejecimiento y el conflicto entre generaciones

Los problemas de población pueden ser considerados desde un punto de vista sociológico, como conflicto social entre grupos insolidarios que defienden su propio interés.Frente al dilema ético de los límites de la investigación y de su aplicación al ser humano y desde el punto de vista social; el futuro se puede plantear en términos de egoísmo o de solidaridad, de derechos o de disminución de recursos, de enfrentamiento o de consenso.

El reemplazo por las migraciones: natalidad y fecundidad de los extranjeros en España

Resulta muy difícil estimar el aporte al crecimiento natural de las personas venidas de fueras y nuevos residentes, de acuerdo con la propuesta de Naciones Unidas. Históricamente, No ha habido acuerdo acerca de la fecundidad de los migrantes. Andorka consideró que la migración producía un efecto depresor en la fecundidad. Estudios sobre la fecundidad de los migrantes internos en la sociedad catalana han mostrado el contraste entre un creciente indicador sintético de fecundidad (ISF) y un efecto reducido en la fecundidad longitudinal. Un intento de explicación basado en el tiempo, nacimientos pospuestos y adaptación, se presenta. Se trata de una combinación de la propuesta de Andorka del efecto depresor de la fecundidad, con un segundo tiempo de recuperación en destino. Esta Hipótesis en dos Tiempos (H2T) tiene carácter tentativo. Considera sólo un efecto de calendario. Se utilizan datos oficiales de la Encuesta de Fecundidad de 1999, de un Censo anterior y de natalidad. La H2T se considera una explicación posible de las altas tasas de natalidad de Europa y América.Estimaciones sobre la evolución de los nacimientos futuros de mujeres extranjeras, en al menos dos escenarios, son contemplados al final del artículo.