Atrial Septal Defects

Atrial septal defects are the third most common type of congenital heart disease. Included in this group of malformations are several types of atrial communications that allow shunting of blood between the systemic and the pulmonary circulations. Most children with isolated atrial septal defects are free of symptoms, but the rates of exercise intolerance, atrial tachyarrhythmias, right ventricular dysfunction, and pulmonary hypertension increase with advancing age and life expectancy is reduced in adults with untreated defects. The risk of development of pulmonary vascular disease, a potentially lethal complication, is higher in female patients and in older adults with untreated defects. Surgical closure is safe and effective and when done before age 25 years is associated with normal life expectancy. Transcatheter closure offers a less invasive alternative for patients with a secundum defect who fulfil anatomical and size criteria. In this Seminar we review the causes, anatomy, pathophysiology, treatment, and outcomes of atrial septal defects in children and adult patients in whom this defect is the primary cardiac anomaly.

Prognostic Value of VEGF in Patients Submitted to Percutaneous Coronary Intervention

We examined the longitudinal changes of VEGF levels after percutaneous coronary intervention for predicting major adverse cardiac events (MACE) in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients. VEGF was measured in 94 CAD patients' serum before revascularization, 1-month and 1-year after. Independently of clinical presentation, patients had lower VEGF concentration than a cohort of healthy subjects (median, IQ: 15.9, 9.0-264 pg/mL versus 419, 212-758 pg/mL; P < 0.001) at baseline. VEGF increased to 1-month (median, IQ: 276, 167-498 pg/mL; P < 0.001) and remained steady to 1-year (median, IQ: 320, 173-497 pg/mL; P < 0.001) approaching control levels. Drug eluting stent apposition and previous medication intake produced a less steep VEGF evolution after intervention (P < 0.05). Baseline VEGF concentration <40.8 pg/mL conveyed increased risk for MACE in a 5-year follow-up. Results reflect a positive role of VEGF in recovery and support its importance in CAD prognosis.

Tilt Training Increases Vasoconstrictor Reserve in Patients with Neurocardiogenic Syncope

Neurocardiogenic syncope (NCS) is a common clinical entity resulting from an excessive reflex autonomic response, particularly during orthostatism. Treatment options are controversial and of limited effectiveness. Tilt training (TT) is a promising option to treat these patients. However, its mechanism of action and clinical impact remain unclear. OBJECTIVE: To characterize hemodynamic and autonomic responses during a TT program in patients with NCS refractory to conventional measures. METHODS: We studied 28 patients (50% male, mean age 41±14 years) without structural heart disease, with NCS documented by tilt testing. The TT program included 9 tilt sessions (3 times a week, 30 min) (60° - 6 sessions, 70° - 3 sessions), under ECG and blood pressure monitoring combined with home orthostatic self-training and 10° head-up during sleep. Systolic volume, cardiac output, total peripheral resistance, baroreflex sensitivity and heart-rate variability were computed. Patients were reassessed at 1 month and every 6 months for a maximum of 36 months (24±12 months). RESULTS: Over the course of the TT program there was a significant increase in total peripheral resistance (1485±225 vs. 1591±187 dyn·s·cm(-5), p<0.05), with a decrease in standard deviation (206±60 vs. 150±42, p<0.05). During follow-up, syncope recurred in five patients (19%), with a significant reduction in the number of episodes (4.0±3.2/patient in the 12 months before TT vs. 1.4±0.8/patient post-TT, p<0.05). CONCLUSION: In refractory NCS, TT may be an effective therapeutic option, with long-term benefits. These results appear to be due to an increase in vasoconstrictor reserve combined with a reduction in its variance.

National Registry on Cardiac Electrophysiology (2012)

Based on a survey sent to Portuguese centers that perform diagnostic and interventional electrophysiology and/or implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) implantations, the authors analyze the number and type of procedures performed during 2012 and compare these data with previous years. In 2012, a total of 2561 diagnostic electrophysiologic studies were performed, which were followed by ablation in 2017 cases, representing a steady situation compared with the previous year. There was a 12% increase in the number of ablation procedures for atrial fibrillation, making it for the first time the most frequent indication for ablation, overtaking atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia. The total number of first ICD implantations was 1048 (around 100 per million population), of which 375 were cardiac resynchronization devices (BiV ICDs). This represents a slight decrease (3.3%) in the total number of new implants, with an increase of 10% in the number of BiV ICDs compared to the previous year. However, there was a considerable increase in the number of ICD generator replacements, resulting in an overall increase of 3.5% in implantations performed in 2012. Some comments are made regarding developments in this activity and its current status, and on some factors that may influence the dynamics of this area of interventional cardiology.

Cuidar da Criança e Família Após o Transplante Cardíaco

O transplante cardíaco é um tratamento cirúrgico que representa uma alternativa para crianças com situações de doença cardíaca grave e incapacitante. A vivência do transplante cardíaco tem impacto a nível social, psicológico, físico e económico. A prevenção das complicações mais frequentes deste tratamento (a rejeição e a infecção) envolve uma série de desafios para os profissionais de saúde, para a criança e família e requerem apoios comunitários. O enfermeiro pode ajudar a minimizar o impacto psicológico e social do transplante cardíaco na vida da criança e da família, alicerçando a sua intervenção no Modelo de Cuidados Centrados na Família. A consulta de enfermagem permite a continuidade de cuidados com base numa relação de confiança, comunicação eficaz e educação da criança transplantada e família, facilitando o seu envolvimento e estabelecimento de expectativas, que se assumem como fundamentais para a adaptação no pós-transplante.

Environment and Health in Children Day Care Centres (ENVIRH) - Study Rationale and Protocol

Background: Indoor air quality (IAQ) is considered an important determinant of human health. The association between exposure to volatile organic compounds, particulate matter, house dust mite, molds and bacteria in day care centers (DCC) is not completely clear. The aim of this project was to study these effects. Methods --- study design: This study comprised two phases. Phase I included an evaluation of 45 DCCs (25 from Lisbon and 20 from Oporto, targeting 5161 children). In this phase, building characteristics, indoor CO2 and air temperature/relative humidity, were assessed. A children’s respiratory health questionnaire derived from the ISAAC (International Study on Asthma and Allergies in Children) was also distributed. Phase II encompassed two evaluations and included 20 DCCs selected from phase I after a cluster analysis (11 from Lisbon and 9 from Oporto, targeting 2287 children). In this phase, data on ventilation, IAQ, thermal comfort parameters, respiratory and allergic health, airway inflammation biomarkers, respiratory virus infection patterns and parental and child stress were collected. Results: In Phase I, building characteristics, occupant behavior and ventilation surrogates were collected from all DCCs. The response rate of the questionnaire was 61.7% (3186 children). Phase II included 1221 children. Association results between DCC characteristics, IAQ and health outcomes will be provided in order to support recommendations on IAQ and children’s health. A building ventilation model will also be developed. Discussion: This paper outlines methods that might be implemented by other investigators conducting studies on the association between respiratory health and indoor air quality at DCC.

How To Follow Atrial Fibrillation Ablation Patients?

Catheter ablation is an established treatment option for symptomatic atrial fibrillation (AF), with circumferential pulmonary vein isolation being considered the cornerstone of the procedure. However, this is a complex intervention with potential major complications and with common arrhythmia recurrences. There is consensus among experts that all patients should be seen in follow-up regularly after AF ablation. To date there are limited data regarding the best methodology for routine clinical follow-up of this population. This review summarizes a contemporary insight into management of late complications following AF ablation, post-procedural anticoagulation and arrhythmia monitoring strategies, in order to prevent thromboembolic events, detect and treat arrhythmia recurrences, and discuss the use of upstream therapies after AF ablation.

Invasive Assessment of the Coronary Microcirculation Using the Index of Microcirculatory Resistance: Description and Validation of an Animal Model

INTRODUCTION: The index of microcirculatory resistance (IMR) enables/provides quantitative, invasive, and real-time assessment of coronary microcirculation status. AIMS: The primary aim of this study was to validate the assessment of IMR in a large animal model, and the secondary aim was to compare two doses of intracoronary papaverine, 5 and 10 mg, for induction of maximal hyperemia and its evolution over time. METHODS: Measurements of IMR were performed in eight pigs. Mean distal pressure (Pd) and mean transit time (Tmn) were measured at rest and at maximal hyperemia induced with intracoronary papaverine, 5 and 10 mg, and after 2, 5, 8 and 10 minutes. Disruption of the microcirculation was achieved by selective injection of 40-μm microspheres via a microcatheter in the left anterior descending artery. RESULTS: In each animal 14 IMR measurements were made. There were no differences between the two doses of papaverine regarding Pd response and IMR values - 11 ± 4.5 U with 5 mg and 10.6 ± 3 U with 10 mg (p=0.612). The evolution of IMR over time was also similar with the two doses, with significant differences from resting values disappearing after five minutes of intracoronary papaverine administration. IMR increased with disrupted microcirculation in all animals (41 ± 16 U, p=0.001). CONCLUSIONS: IMR provides invasive and real-time assessment of coronary microcirculation. Disruption of the microvascular bed is associated with a significant increase in IMR. A 5-mg dose of intracoronary papaverine is as effective as a 10-mg dose in inducing maximal hyperemia. After five minutes of papaverine administration there is no significant difference from resting hemodynamic status.

Short QT Syndrome Presenting As Syncope: How Short Is Too Short?

We report the case of a 52-year-old man who presented to our emergency department (ED) after three episodes of syncope in the seven hours before admission. During his stay in the ED he had recurrent ventricular tachycardia (VT) requiring external electrical cardioversion. A 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG) showed a short QT (SQT) interval (270 ms, QTc 327 ms), with frequent R-on-T extrasystoles triggering sustained polymorphic VT. After exclusion of other precipitating causes, the patient was diagnosed as having SQT syndrome (SQTS) according to the Gollob criteria. To our knowledge, this is the first known documentation of an SQT-caused arrhythmic episode on a 12-lead ECG, as well as the first reported case of SQTS in Portugal. The patient received an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator and was discharged. At a follow-up assessment 14 months later he was symptom-free, interrogation of the device showed no arrhythmic events, and the ECG showed a QT interval of 320 ms (QTc 347 ms).

A Propósito de Dois Aniversários

O Serviço de Cardiologia Pediátrica do Hospital de Santa Marta completou 25 anos de existência em finais de 1994. Ao mesmo tempo, o Centro Hospitalar Conde de S. Januário em Macau comemorou o 120° aniversário. A Cardiologia Pediátrica de Santa Marta participou nestas comemorações em Macau, com o trabalho Paediatric Cardiology, 25 years. Hospital de Santa Marta Lisbon - Past, Present, Future. Os elementos que serviram de conteúdo para aquela comunicação foram agora compilados e servem de base para este trabalho.

Diagnóstico Pré-Natal das Cardiopatias Congénitas. Realidade Actual no Sul do País

Com o objectivo de avaliar a realidade actual do diagnóstico pré-natal das cardiopatias congénitas realizou-se um estudo prospectivo da actividade do Sector de Cardiologia Fetal num período de 2 anos. Este estudo abrangeu uma população fetal constituída por um grupo de 948 fetos observados no Serviço, 348 no período de Janeiro a Junho de 1993 (Grupo 1) e 600 de Julho de 1993 a Dezembro de 1994 (Grupo II), assim como uma população de 185 recém-nascidos, 20 (Grupo 1) internados por cardiopatia grave durante o período de Janeiro a Junho de 1993 e 165 observados de Janeiro a Junho de 1994 (Grupo II). Registaram-se os dados relativos a gravidez e ecografia obstétrica, risco fetal para cardiopatia, idade no momento do diagnóstico e tipo de cardiopatia. As populações respectivas de cada um dos grupos foram comparadas entre si. Nos dois grupos da população fetal os principais motivos de referência para ecocardiograma foram os factores maternos (18%) e familiares (14%) sendo os factores fetais causas menos frequentes (7%), nomeadamente a suspeita obstétrica de cardiopatia (6%) e as arritmias fetais (7%). No entanto, a incidência de cardiopatia fetal no grupo 1 foi de 32% para a suspeita obstétrica de cardiopatia e de 13% para a arritmia fetal; no grupo II esta incidência foi respectivamente de 48% e de 36%. Nos dois grupos os factores maternos associaram-se a cardiopatia em 2° o dos casos; não houve associação com factores familiares. Apresentavam factor de risco 30% dos recém-nascidos do grupo 1. No grupo II este valor foi de 36% nos recém-nascidos internados e de 22% nos do ambulatório. O ecocardiograma fetal foi realizado em 3 recém-nascidos do grupo 1 e em 12 casos do grupo II sendo o diagnóstico pré-natal feito em 2 e 3 casos respectivamente. Conclui-se que, exceptuando o aumento do número de fetos referenciados e a melhoria na acuidade do diagnóstico obstétrico, no período de estudo não houve modificações significativas na identificação dos riscos, continuando a maioria dos recém-nascidos com cardiopatia a nascer sem diagnóstico pré-natal. Torna-se necessário continuar a política de divulgação desta área, em particular junto dos médicos que prestam cuidados primários de saúde.

Prosthetic Mitral Valve Thrombosis in Pregnancy: From Thrombolysis to Anticoagulation

INTRODUCTION: Pregnant women with mechanical prosthetic heart valves are at increased risk for valve thrombosis. Management decisions for this life-threatening complication are complex. Open-heart surgery has a very high risk of maternal mortality and fetal loss. Bleeding and embolic risks associated with thrombolytic agents, the limited efficacy of thrombolysis in certain subgroups, and a lack of experience in the setting of pregnancy raise important concerns. CASE REPORT: We report a case of mitral prosthetic valve thrombosis in early pregnancy, which was successfully treated with streptokinase. Ten years later, the same patient had an uneventful pregnancy, throughout which acenocoumarol was maintained. CONCLUSION: With this case we review the prevention (with oral anticoagulant therapy) and treatment of prosthetic valve thrombosis during pregnancy, which is important for both obstetrician and cardiologist.

Formas Típicas e Atípicas da Doença de Kawasaki

Introdução — A doença de Kawasaki (DK) tem vindo a aumentar de frequência. O seu diagnóstico obedece a critérios clínicos, sendo por vezes difícil. Ultimamente tem-se prestado particular atenção às formas atípicas ou incompletas da doença, sobretudo porque nestas tem sido descrita uma maior incidência de complicações cardiovasculares. Objectivos — Identificar critérios que possam levar ao diagnóstico precoce da doença, particularmente nas formas atípicas. Material e Métodos — Estudo retrospectivo de todas as crianças do Serviço com o diagnóstico de D.K. entre 1984 e 1994. Registou-se o sexo e idade dos doentes (dts) e procurou-se a presença de critérios diagnósticos, bem como de sintomas e sinais adicionais. Analisaram-se os valores laboratoriais, os electrocardiogramas (ECG) e os ecocardiogramas (ECO), tendo-se verificado a terapêutica prescrita. Resultados — Num total de 67 dts, a idade média foi de 3,7 anos, com uma relação de sexos M/F: 1,8/1. Foram criados dois grupos, sendo o Grupo I (n=48) de dts com formas típicas de DK e o Grupo II (n=19) de dts com formas atípicas de D.K.. Nos dois grupos não houve diferenças quanto à idade, à relação M/F e aos achados laboratoriais. Os sinais e sintomas adicionais ocorreram do mesmo modo, à excepção da hepato-esplenomegalia que ocorreu mais no Grupo I. Na análise dos ECG não se encontram arritmias, observando-se outras alterações em 6 dts do Grupo I. Todos os dts fizeram ECO no 1.2 dia de observação, em média 15 dias após o início da doença. ECO anormal surgiu em 36 dts, 33 com alterações das coronárias [Grupo I = 26 (54%); Grupo II = 7 (26%)]. Nos dts do Grupo II o atingimento coronário verificou-se nas crianças mais novas (média = 1,7 anos)havendo uma menor relação M/F (1:3/1). A terapêutica com gamaglobulina foi feita com a mesma frequência nos dois grupos (média = 48%), bem como a terapêutica com ácido acetilsalicílico (média = 91%). Conclusão — A estrita adesão aos critérios diagnósticos de D.K. pode levar ao não reconhecimento de formas atípicas da doença. No presente estudo não foi possível identificar critérios que possam contribuir seguramente para o diagnóstico precoce de DK, sendo no entanto de salientar que as formas atípicas ocorreram numa idade mais precoce registando-se também maior prevalência de alterações coronárias no sexo feminino. A referência para ecocardiografia foi tardia e a terapêutica com gama-globulina foi administrada em menos de metade dos casos.

Recém-Nascidos com Cardiopatia. Diagnóstico Pré e Pós-Natal

Com o objectivo de avaliar aspectos que se prendem com o diagnóstico das cardiopatias no período pré e neo-natal, os autores apresentam um estudo prospectivo de Janeiro a Junho de 1994, durante o qual foram avaliados 165 recém-nascidos, 138 no ambulatório (Grupo I) e 27 no internamento (Grupo II). No Grupo I foram vigiadas 91% das gravidezes, 33% tendo risco para cardiopatia, um quarto destas realizou ecocardiograma fetal. No Grupo II foram vigiadas 74% das gravidezes, havendo em 50% risco para cardiopatia, tendo 30% destas feito ecocardiograma fetal. As principais causas de envio dos recém-nascidos foram: sopro cardíaco (77% Grupo 1; 15% Grupo II), cianose (4% Grupo I;15% Grupo II) e a associação das duas (2% Grupo I; 22% Grupo II). A idade de suspeita / diagnóstico foi, em média 6/8 dias no Grupo I e 4/4 dias no Grupo II. No Grupo I, 89 recém-nascidos não tinham doença cardíaca, 34 tinham comunicação interventricular, 3 defeito do septo aurículo-ventricular e 2 tetralogia de Fallot; 10 eram portadores de trissomia 21. No Grupo II, 25 recém-nascidos tinham cardiopatia sendo as mais frequentes a transposição das grandes artérias e os obstáculos esquerdos (24% cada). Onze fizeram cateterismo cardíaco e 12 cirurgia, tendo 1 falecido. Conclui-se que, apesar da maioria dos recém-nascidos avaliados ter nascido sem diagnóstico pré-natal, o diagnóstico das cardiopatias graves fez-se na primeira semana de vida a seguir ao parto, nomeadamente o da transposição das grandes artérias, permitindo a tempo o tratamento cirúrgico mais adequado. No entanto, embora não fosse demonstrado neste estudo, continua a ser uma realidade o transporte por longas distâncias de recém- -nascidos com cardiopatia crítica, surgindo por isso alguns em condições não ideais, e outros fora do período adequado para certos tipos de tratamento. Por outro lado, a maioria dos enviados à consulta têm sopros transitórios, não se encontrando já, em cerca de metade, qualquer alteração na avaliação cardiovascular pelo especialista.